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Dòng 7:
| image = File:Chateauwood.jpg
| image_size=300px
| caption = Australian gunners on a [[duckboard]] track in Château Wood near [[Hooge in World War I|Hooge]], ngày 29 Octobertháng 10 năm 1917. Photo by [[Frank Hurley]]
| date = 31 July – ngày 10 Novembertháng 11 năm 1917<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=07|day1=31|year1=1917|month2=11|day2=10|year2=1917}})
| place = [[Passendale]], [[Belgium]]
|coordinates = {{coord|50|54|1|N|3|1|16|E|type:city|name=Passendale|display=inline,title}}
Dòng 49:
====1914====
 
[[Belgian independence]] had been recognised in the [[Treaty of London (1839)|Treaty of London]] (1839), which created a sovereign and neutral state.{{sfn|Albertini|1952|p=414}} The [[German invasion of Belgium]] on ngày 4 Augusttháng 8 năm 1914, in violation of Article VII of the treaty, was the ''[[casus belli]]'' of the British government in declaring war on Germany.{{sfn|Albertini|1952|p=504}} British military operations in Belgium began with the arrival of the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War I)|British Expeditionary Force]] (BEF) at [[Mons]] on 22 August. Operations in [[Flanders]] began during the [[Race to the Sea]], reciprocal attempts by the French and German armies to turn their opponents' northern flank through [[Picardy]], [[Artois]] and Flanders. On 10 October, Lieutenant-General [[Erich von Falkenhayn]], the [[German General Staff|Chief of Staff]] of the ''[[Oberste Heeresleitung]]'' (''OHL'', supreme army command), ordered an attack towards Dunkirk and Calais, followed by a turn south behind the Allied armies, to gain a decisive victory.{{sfn|Foley|2007|p=102}} On 16 October, the Belgians and some French reinforcements began the defence of western Belgium and the French [[English Channel|Channel]] ports, at the [[Battle of the Yser]]. When the German offensive failed, Falkenhayn ordered the capture of [[Ypres]] to gain a local advantage. By 18 November, the [[First Battle of Ypres]] had also ended in failure, at a cost of {{nowrap|160,000 German}} casualties.{{sfn|Foley|2007|p=104}} In December 1914, the [[British Admiralty]] began discussions with the [[War Office]], for a combined operation to re-occupy the Belgian coast but the British were obliged to conform to French strategy and participate in offensives further south.{{sfn|Edmonds|1932|p=2}}
 
====1915====
 
Large British offensive operations in Flanders were not possible in 1915, due to a lack of resources.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=137}} The Germans conducted their own Flanders offensive at the [[Second Battle of Ypres]] (22 April – ngày 15 Maytháng 5 năm 1915), making the Ypres [[Salients, re-entrants and pockets|salient]] more costly to defend.{{sfn|Edmonds|1932|p=1}} [[Sir Douglas Haig]] succeeded [[John French, 1st Earl of Ypres|Sir John French]] as Commander-in-Chief of the BEF on ngày 19 Decembertháng 12 năm 1915.{{sfn|Terraine|1977|pp=12–13}} A week after his appointment, Haig met Vice-Admiral Sir [[Reginald Bacon]], who emphasised the importance of obtaining control of the Belgian coast, to end the threat posed by [[Flanders U-boat flotillas|German U-boats]]. Haig was sceptical of a coastal operation, believing that a landing from the sea would be far more difficult than anticipated and that an advance along the coast would require so much preparation, that the Germans would have ample warning. Haig preferred an advance from Ypres, to bypass the flooded area around the Yser and the coast, before attempting a coastal attack to clear the coast to the Dutch border.{{sfn|Edmonds|1932|p=2}}
 
====1916====
Dòng 68:
{{see also|Western Front (World War I)|Nivelle Offensive}}
 
Nivelle planned an operation in three parts, with preliminary offensives to pin German reserves by the British at [[Arras]] and the French between the Somme and the [[Oise]], then a French breakthrough offensive on the [[Aisne]], followed by pursuit and exploitation. The plan was welcomed by Haig but with some reservations, which he addressed on 6 January. Nivelle agreed to a proviso that if the first two parts of the operation failed to lead to a breakthrough, the operations would be stopped so that the British could move their forces north for the Flanders offensive, which Haig stressed was of great importance to the British government.{{sfn|Edmonds|Wynne|1940|p=14}} On 23 January, Haig wrote that it would take six weeks to move British troops and equipment from the Arras front to Flanders and on 14 March, he noted that the attack on Messines Ridge could be made in May. On 21 March, he wrote to Nivelle that it would take two months to prepare the attacks from Messines to Steenstraat but that the Messines attack could be ready in {{nowrap|5–6 weeks.}} The Nivelle Offensive took place from 9 April to 9 May and failed to achieve a breakthrough. On 16 May, Haig wrote that he had divided the Flanders operation into two phases, one to take Messines Ridge and the main attack several weeks later.{{sfn|Terraine|1977|pp=31, 55, 94}} British determination to clear the Belgian coast took on more urgency, after the Germans resumed unrestricted submarine warfare on ngày 1 Februarytháng 2 năm 1917.{{sfn|Terraine|1999|p=15}} On ngày 1 Maytháng 5 năm 1917, Haig wrote that the Nivelle Offensive had weakened the German army but that an attempt at a decisive blow would be premature.{{sfn|Powell|1993|p=169}} An offensive at Ypres would continue the wearing-out process, on a front where the Germans could not refuse to fight. Even a partial success would improve the tactical situation in the Ypres salient, reducing wastage, which was exceptional, even in quiet periods.{{sfn|Terraine|1977|p=84}} In early May, Haig set the timetable for the Flanders offensive, with the preliminary attack on Messines Ridge to begin on 7 June.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|p=24}}
 
===Kerensky offensive===
Dòng 74:
{{Main article|Eastern Front (World War I)|Kerensky Offensive}}
 
[[FileTập tin:EasternFront1917.jpg|thumb|upright=.75|{{centre|The Eastern Front in 1917}}]]
The Russian army conducted the Kerensky Offensive in [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]], to honour the agreement struck with the Allies at the Chantilly meeting of 15 to ngày 16 Novembertháng 11 năm 1916. After a brief period of success from 1 to 19 July, the Russian offensive was contained by the German and Austro-Hungarian armies, which counter-attacked and forced the Russian armies to retreat. On the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] coast from 1 to ngày 5 Septembertháng 9 năm 1917, the Germans attacked with their strategic reserve of six divisions and captured [[Riga]]. In [[Operation Albion]] (September–October 1917), the Germans took the [[West Estonian Archipelago|islands]] at the mouth of the [[Gulf of Riga]]. The British and French commanders on the Western Front had to reckon on the German western army {{lang|de|(''Westheer'')}} being strengthened by reinforcements from the ''Ostheer'' on the Eastern Front by late 1917.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|p=234}} Haig wished to exploit the diversion of German forces in Russia for as long as it continued and urged the British War Cabinet to commit the maximum amount of manpower and munitions to the battle in Flanders.{{sfn|Terraine|1977|pp=290–297}}
 
==Prelude==
Dòng 86:
 
=== Topography ===
[[FileTập tin:USMA - Third Battle of Ypres.jpg|thumb|{{centre|The progression of the battle and the general disposition of troops}}]]
In Flanders, sands, gravels and [[marl]]s predominate, covered by [[silt]]s in places. The coastal strip is sandy but a short way into the hinterland, the ground rises towards the vale of Ypres, which before 1914 was a flourishing market garden.{{sfn|Liddle|1997|pp=140–158}} Ypres is {{convert|20|m|ft|order=flip|abbr=on}} above sea level; Bixschoote {{convert|4|mi|km|abbr=on}} to the north is at {{convert|8.5|m|ft|order=flip|abbr=on}}. To the east the land is at {{convert|20|–|25|m|ft|order=flip|abbr=on}} for several miles, with the Steenbeek river at {{convert|15|m|ft|order=flip|abbr=on}} near St Julien. There is a low ridge from Messines, {{convert|80|m|ft|order=flip|abbr=on}} at its highest point, running north-east past Clapham Junction at the west end of Gheluvelt plateau ({{frac|2|1|2}} miles from Ypres at {{convert|65|m|ft|order=flip|abbr=on}} and Gheluvelt, above {{convert|50|m|ft|order=flip|abbr=on}} to Passchendaele, ({{frac|5|1|2}} miles from Ypres at {{convert|50|m|ft|order=flip|abbr=on}} declining from there to a plain further north. Gradients vary from negligible, to {{nowrap|1:60}} at Hooge and {{nowrap|1:33}} at Zonnebeke.{{sfn|Liddle|1997|p=141}}
 
Dòng 93:
===British plans===
 
Preparations for operations in Flanders began in 1915, with the doubling of the Hazebrouck–Ypres rail line and the building of a new line from Bergues to Proven, which was doubled in early 1917. Progress on roads, rail lines, railheads and spurs in the Second Army zone was continuous and by mid-1917, gave the area the most efficient supply system of the BEF.{{sfn|Henniker|1937|p=273}} Several plans and memoranda for a Flanders offensive were produced between January 1916 and May 1917, in which the writers tried to relate the offensive resources available to the terrain and the likely German defence. In early 1916, the importance of the capture of the Gheluvelt plateau for an advance further north was emphasised by Haig and the army commanders.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|pp=3–4}} On ngày 14 Februarytháng 2 năm 1917, Colonel [[Norman MacMullen|C. N. Macmullen]] of GHQ proposed that the plateau be taken by a mass tank attack, reducing the need for artillery; in April a reconnaissance by Captain [[Giffard LeQuesne Martel|G. le Q Martel]] found that the area was unsuitable for tanks.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|p=25}} On 9 February, General Rawlinson, commander of the Fourth Army, suggested that Messines Ridge could be taken in one day and that the capture of the Gheluvelt plateau should be fundamental to the attack further north. He suggested that the southern attack from St Yves to Mont Sorrel should come first and that Mont Sorrel to Steenstraat should be attacked within {{nowrap|48–72 hours.}} After discussions with Rawlinson and Plumer and the incorporation of Haig's changes, Macmullen submitted his memorandum on 14 February. With amendments the memorandum became the ''GHQ 1917'' plan.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|pp=17–19}} A week after the Battle of Messines Ridge, Haig gave his objectives to his army commanders, wearing out the enemy, securing the Belgian coast and connecting with the Dutch frontier by capturing Passchendaele ridge, followed by an advance on Roulers and Operation Hush, an attack along the coast with a combined amphibious landing. If manpower and artillery were insufficient, only the first part of the plan might be fulfilled. On 30 April, Haig told Gough, the Fifth Army commander, that he would lead the Northern Operation and the coastal force, although Cabinet approval for the offensive was not granted until 21 June.{{sfn|Sheffield|2011|pp=227–231}}{{efn|After mutinies had begun in the French armies, the British cabinet felt compelled to endorse the Flanders offensive, in the hope that more refusals to fight could be "averted by a great [military] success". Haig wrote that if the Allies could win the war in 1917, "the chief people to suffer would be the socialists".{{sfn|Millman|2001|p=61}}{{sfn|French|1995|pp=119–122, 92–93, 146}}}}
 
===German defences===
Dòng 99:
{{main|Western Front tactics, 1917#German defensive preparations: June–July 1917|l1=German defensive preparations: June – July 1917}}
 
[[FileTập tin:German defences east of Ypres mid-1917.jpg|thumb|The British front line and the German defences in the area east of Ypres, mid-1917]]
The 4th Army held a front of {{convert|25|mi|km|abbr=on}} with three {{lang|de|''Gruppen'',}} composed of a corps headquarters and a varying complement of divisions; Group Staden, based on the headquarters of the [[Guards Reserve Corps]] was added later. Group Dixmude held {{convert|12|mi|km|abbr=on}} with four front divisions and two [[Eingreif division|''Eingreif'']] divisions, Group Ypres held {{convert|6|mi|km|abbr=on}} from Pilckem to Menin Road with three front divisions and two {{lang|de|''Eingreif''}} divisions and Group {{lang|de|''Wijtschate''}} held a similar length of front south of the Menin road, with three front divisions and three {{lang|de|''Eingreif''}} divisions. The {{lang|de|''Eingreif''}} divisions were stationed behind the Menin and Passchendaele ridges. About {{convert|5|mi|km|abbr=on}} further back, were four more {{lang|de|''Eingreif''}} divisions and {{convert|7|mi|km|abbr=on}} beyond them, another two in ''OHL'' reserve.{{sfn|Wynne|1939|pp=297–298}}
 
Dòng 110:
{{main article|Battle of Messines (1917)}}
 
[[FileTập tin:NLS Haig - Smashed up German trench on Messines Ridge with dead (cropped).jpg|thumb|{{centre|German trench destroyed by a mine explosion}}]]
The first stage in the British plan was a preparatory attack on the German positions south of Ypres at Messines Ridge. The Germans on the ridge had observation over Ypres and unless it was captured, observed [[enfilade]] artillery-fire could be fired against a British attack from the salient further north.{{sfn|Sheldon|2007|p=1}} Since mid-1915, the British had been [[Mining (military)|mining]] under the German positions on the ridge and by June 1917, [[Mines in the Battle of Messines (1917)|21 mines]] had been filled with nearly {{convert|1000000|lb|t|abbr=on}} of explosives.{{sfn|Hart|Steel|2001|pp=41–44}} The Germans knew the British were mining and had taken counter-measures but they were surprised at the extent of the British effort.{{sfn|Sheldon|2007|p=23}} Two of the mines failed to detonate but {{nowrap|19 went}} off on 7 June, at {{nowrap|3:10 a.m.}} [[British Summer Time]]. The final objectives were largely gained before dark and the British had fewer losses than the expected {{nowrap|50 percent in}} the initial attack. As the infantry advanced over the far edge of the ridge, German artillery and machine-guns east of the ridge opened fire and the British artillery was less able to suppress them.{{sfn|Hart|Steel|2001|p=55}} The attack removed the Germans from the dominating ground on the southern face of the Ypres salient, which the 4th Army had held since the First Battle of Ypres in 1914.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|p=87}}
 
Dòng 119:
{{main|Western Front tactics, 1917#The British set-piece attack in mid-1917|l1=The British set-piece attack in mid-1917}}
 
[[FileTập tin:18pdrBoesinghe31July1917.jpg|thumb|{{centre|British [[Ordnance QF 18 pounder|18 pounder]] battery taking up new positions near Boesinghe, 31 July}}]]
Haig selected Gough to command the offensive on 30 April and on 10 June, Gough took over the Ypres salient north of Messines Ridge. Gough planned an offensive based on the ''GHQ 1917'' plan and the instructions he had received from Haig.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|p=127}} Gough held meetings with his corps commanders on 6 and 16 June, where the third objective, which included the {{lang|de|''Wilhelm Stellung''}} (third line), a second-day objective in earlier plans, was added to the two objectives due to be taken on the first day. A fourth objective was also given for the first day but was only to be attempted at the discretion of divisional and corps commanders, in places where the German defence had collapsed.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|pp=126–127, 431–432}} The attack was not planned as a breakthrough operation, because ''Flandern I Stellung'', the fourth German defensive position, lay {{convert|10000|–|12000|yd|m|abbr=on}} behind the front line and was not an objective on the first day.{{sfn|Prior|Wilson|1996|pp=72–75}}
 
Dòng 128:
{{main article|Battle of Pilckem Ridge}}
 
[[FileTập tin:The Battle of Passchendaele, July-november 1917 Q5726.jpg|thumb|{{centre|German prisoners and British wounded cross the Yser Canal near Boesinghe, ngày 31 Julytháng 7 năm 1917. (Q5726)}}]]
The British attack began at {{nowrap|3:50 a.m.}} on 31 July; the attack was to commence at dawn but a layer of unbroken low cloud, meant that it was still dark when the infantry advanced.{{sfn|Prior|Wilson|1996|p=89}} The main attack, by [[II Corps (United Kingdom)|II Corps]] across the Ghelveult Plateau to the south, confronted the principal German defensive concentration of artillery, ground-holding divisions (''Stellungsdivisionen'') and ''Eingreif'' divisions. The attack had most success on the northern flank, on the fronts of [[XIV Corps (United Kingdom)|XIV Corps]] and the French First Army, both of which advanced {{convert|2500|–|3000|yd|m|abbr=on}} to the line of the Steenbeek river. In the centre, [[XVIII Corps (United Kingdom)|XVIII Corps]] and [[XIX Corps (United Kingdom)|XIX Corps]] pushed forward to the line of the Steenbeek (black line) to consolidate and sent fresh troops towards the green line and on the XIX Corps front to the red line, for an advance of about {{convert|4000|yd|m|abbr=on}}. Group Ypres counter-attacked the flanks of the British break-in, supported by every artillery piece and aircraft, around noon. The Germans were able to drive the three British brigades back to the black line with {{nowrap|70 percent}} casualties; the counter-attack was stopped at the black line by mud, artillery and machine-gun fire.{{sfn|Prior|Wilson|1996|pp=90–95}}
 
Dòng 135:
{{main|Capture of Westhoek}}
 
[[FileTập tin:German defensive system, Flanders, mid-1917.jpg|thumb|{{centre|German defensive system, Flanders, mid-1917}}]]
After a rain delay from 2 August, II Corps attacked again on 10 August, to capture the rest of the black line (second objective) on the Gheluvelt plateau. The advance succeeded but German artillery-fire and infantry counter-attacks isolated the infantry of the 18th Division in Glencorse Wood. At about {{nowrap|7:00 p.m.,}} German infantry attacked behind a smokescreen and recaptured all but the north-west corner of the wood; only the 25th Division gains on Westhoek Ridge to the north were held.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|pp=185–187}} [[Albrecht von Thaer]], a staff officer at Group Wytshchate, noted that casualties after {{nowrap|14 days}} in the line averaged {{nowrap|1,500–2,000 men,}} compared to the Somme 1916 average of {{nowrap|4,000 men}} and that German troop morale was higher than in 1916.{{sfn|Liddle|1997|pp=45–58}}
 
Dòng 152:
====Local attacks====
 
{{see also|Operations on the Gheluvelt Plateau, July–August 1917|l1=Gheluvelt Plateau|Action of the Cockcroft|Action of ngày 22 Augusttháng 8 năm 1917}}
 
[[FileTập tin:AAGunMorbecque29August1917-2.jpeg|thumb|{{centre|British anti-aircraft gun at Morbecque, ngày 29 Augusttháng 8 năm 1917}}]]
On higher ground, the Germans continued to inflict many losses on the British divisions beyond Langemarck but on 19 August, after two fine dry days, XVIII Corps conducted a novel infantry, tank, aircraft and artillery operation and captured German strongpoints and pillboxes along the St Julien–Poelcappelle road in front of the ''Wilhelm Stellung''. On 22 August, more ground was gained by XIX and XVIII corps but they remained overlooked by the Germans.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|p=203}} A II Corps attack on the Gheluvelt Plateau from 22 to 24 August, to capture Nonne Bosschen, Glencorse Wood and Inverness Copse, failed and was costly to both sides.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|pp=202–205}} Gough laid down a new infantry formation of skirmish lines to be followed by "worms" on 24 August and Cavan noted that pillboxes should be attacked on a broad front, to engage them simultaneously.{{sfn|Simpson|2001|pp=130–134}} Another general offensive intended for 25 August, was delayed by the failure of the preliminary attacks and then postponed due to more bad weather.{{sfn|Rogers|2010|pp=162–167}} On 27 August, II Corps tried a combined tank and infantry attack but the tanks bogged and the attack failed; Haig called a halt to operations until the weather improved.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|p=208}}
 
Dòng 163:
{{quote|Careful investigation of records of more than eighty years showed that in Flanders the weather broke early each August with the regularity of the Indian monsoon: once the Autumn rains set in difficulties would be greatly enhanced....Unfortunately, there now set in the wettest August for thirty years.|Charteris{{sfn|Charteris|1929|pp=272–273}}}}
 
the first part of which was quoted by Lloyd George (1934), Liddell Hart (1934) and Leon Wolff (1959); in a 1997 essay, John Hussey called the passage by Charteris "baffling".{{sfn|Hussey|1997|p=155}} The BEF had set up a Meteorological Section under [[Ernest Gold (meteorologist)|Ernest Gold]] in 1915, which by the end of 1917 had {{nowrap|16 officers}} and {{nowrap|82 men.}} The section predicted the warm weather and thunderstorms of 7 to 14 June and in a letter to the press of ngày 17 Januarytháng 1 năm 1958, Gold wrote that the facts of Flanders climate contradicted the claim made by Charteris in 1929.{{sfn|Hussey|1997|p=153}} In 1989, Philip Griffiths examined August weather in Flanders for the thirty years before 1916 and found that,
 
{{quote|...there is no reason to suggest that the weather broke early in the month with any regularity.|Griffiths{{sfn|Hussey|1997|pp=147–148}}}}
Dòng 187:
{{main|Western Front tactics, 1917#The British set-piece attack in late 1917|l1=The British set-piece attack in late 1917}}
 
[[FileTập tin:The Battle of Passchendaele, July-november 1917 Q6416.jpg|thumb|{{centre|Derelict tank used as the roof of a dug out, Zillebeke, ngày 20 Septembertháng 9 năm 1917 (Q6416)}}]]
The [[4th Army (German Empire)|4th Army]] had held on to the Gheluvelt Plateau in August but its casualties worsened the German manpower shortage.{{sfn|Sheldon|2007|pp=119–120}} Haig transferred the main offensive effort to the Second Army on 25 August and moved the northern boundary of the Second Army closer to the Ypres–Roulers railway. More heavy artillery was sent to Flanders from the armies further south and placed opposite the Gheluvelt Plateau.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=308}} Plumer continued the tactical development of the Fifth Army, during its slow and costly progress in August. After a pause of about three weeks, Plumer intended to capture the plateau in four steps, at six-day intervals to bring forward artillery and supplies.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|p=237}} The Second Army attacks were to remain limited and infantry brigades re-organised to attack the first objective with a battalion each and the final one with two battalions, the opposite of the Fifth Army practice.{{sfn|Marble|1998|loc=App 22}}
 
Dòng 206:
{{Main article|Battle of the Menin Road Ridge}}
 
[[FileTập tin:Battle of Menin Road - wounded at side of the road.jpg|thumb|{{centre|Wounded men at the side of a road after the Battle of Menin Road}}]]
The British plan for the battle fought from {{nowrap|20–25 September,}} included more emphasis on the use of heavy and medium artillery to destroy German concrete pill-boxes and machine-gun nests, which were more numerous in the battle zones being attacked and to engage in more counter-battery fire. The British had {{nowrap|575 heavy}} and medium and {{nowrap|720 field}} guns and howitzers, having more than doubled the quantity of artillery available at the Battle of Pilckem Ridge.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|pp=238–239}} Aircraft were to be used for systematic air observation of German troop movements, to avoid the failures of previous battles, where too few aircraft crews had been burdened with too many duties and had flown in bad weather.{{sfn|Jones|1934|p=181}}
 
Dòng 213:
====German counter-attack, 25 September====
 
{{main|Action of ngày 25 Septembertháng 9 năm 1917}}
 
Two regiments of the German [[50th Reserve Division (German Empire)|50th Reserve Division]] attacked on a {{convert|1800|yd|m|abbr=on}} front, either side of the Reutelbeek, supported by aircraft and {{nowrap|44 field}} and {{nowrap|20 heavy}} batteries of artillery, four times the usual amount for a division. The German infantry managed to advance on the flanks, for about {{convert|100|yd|m|abbr=on}} near the Menin road and {{convert|600|yd|m|abbr=on}} north of the Reutelbeek. The infantry were supported by artillery-observation and ground-attack aircraft and a box-barrage fired behind the British front-line, which isolated the British from reinforcements and ammunition. Return-fire from the [[33rd Division (United Kingdom)|33rd Division]] and the [[15th Brigade (Australia)|15th Australian Brigade]] of the [[5th Division (Australia)|5th Australian Division]] along the southern edge of Polygon wood, forced the attackers under cover around some of the {{lang|de|''Wilhelm Stellung''}} pillboxes, near Black Watch Corner, at the south-western edge of Polygon Wood. German attempts to reinforce the attacking troops failed, due to British artillery observers isolating the advanced German troops with artillery barrages.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|pp=282–284}}
Dòng 223:
{{Main article|Battle of Polygon Wood}}
 
[[FileTập tin:Australian infantry small box respirators Ypres 1917.jpg|thumb|upright|{{centre|Australian infantry with small box respirator gas masks, Ypres, September 1917}}]]
The Second Army altered its Corps frontages soon after the attack of 20 September, for the next effort {{nowrap|(26 September – 3 October)}} so that each attacking division could be concentrated on a {{convert|1000|yd|m|abbr=on}} front. Roads and light railways were extended to the new front line, to allow artillery and ammunition to be moved forward. The artillery of [[VIII Corps (United Kingdom)|VIII Corps]] and [[IX Corps (United Kingdom)|IX Corps]] on the southern flank, simulated preparations for attacks on Zandvoorde and Warneton. At {{nowrap|5.50 a.m.}} on 26 September, five layers of barrage fired by British artillery and machine-guns began. Dust and smoke thickened the morning mist and the infantry advanced using compass bearings.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|p=284}} Each of the three German ground-holding divisions attacked on 26 September, had an {{lang|de|''Eingreif''}} division in support, twice the ratio of 20 September. No ground captured by the British was lost and German counter-attacks managed only to reach ground to which survivors of the front-line divisions had retired.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|p=293}}
 
Dòng 230:
====German counter-attacks, 30 September – 4 October====
 
{{main|Actions of 30 September – ngày 4 Octobertháng 10 năm 1917}}
 
At {{nowrap|4:00 a.m.}} on 30 September, a thick mist covered the ground and at {{nowrap|4:30 a.m.}} German artillery began a bombardment between the Menin road and the Reutelbeek. At {{nowrap|5:15 a.m.,}} German troops emerged from the mist on an {{convert|800|yd|m|abbr=on}} front.{{sfn|Sandilands|2003|pp=198–199}} The attack was supported by flame-throwers and German infantry throwing smoke- and hand-grenades. The British replied with small-arms fire and bombs, forcing the Germans to retreat in confusion but a post was lost south of the Menin road, then retaken by an immediate counter-attack. SOS rockets were not seen in the mist and the British artillery remained silent.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|pp=301, 302}} The Germans were repulsed again at {{nowrap|6:00 a.m.}} but German artillery-fire continued during the day.{{sfn|Sandilands|2003|pp=198–199}}
Dòng 250:
{{main|Western Front tactics, 1917#German defensive changes: late 1917|l1=German defensive changes: late 1917}}
 
[[FileTập tin:NLS Haig - Troops moving up at eventide - men of a Yorkshire regiment on the march (cropped).jpg|thumb|{{centre|British soldiers moving forward during the Battle of Broodseinde. Photo by [[Ernest Brooks (photographer)|Ernest Brooks]].}}]]
On 7 October, the 4th Army again dispersed its troops in the front defence zone. Reserve battalions moved back behind the artillery protective line and the {{lang|de|''Eingreif''}} divisions were organised to intervene as swiftly as possible once an attack commenced, despite the risk of British artillery-fire. Counter-battery fire to suppress the British artillery was to be increased, to protect the {{lang|de|''Eingreif''}} divisions as they advanced.{{sfn|Wynne|1939|p=309}} All of the German divisions holding front zones were relieved and an extra division brought forward, because the British advances had lengthened the front line. Without the divisions necessary for a counter-offensive south of the Gheluvelt Plateau towards Kemmel Hill, Rupprecht began to plan for a slow withdrawal from the Ypres Salient, even at the risk of uncovering German positions further north and on the Belgian coast.{{sfn|Sheldon|2007|pp=228–229}}{{efn|195th, 16th, 4th Bavarian, 18th, 227th, 240th, 187th and 22nd Reserve divisions).{{sfn|USWD|1920|nopp=y}}}}
 
Dòng 263:
{{Main article|First Battle of Passchendaele}}
 
[[FileTập tin:Passchendaele aerial view.jpg|thumb|{{centre|Aerial view of Passchendaele village before and after the battle}}]]
The First Battle of Passchendaele on 12 October was another Allied attempt to gain ground around Passchendaele. Heavy rain and mud again made movement difficult and little artillery could be brought closer to the front. Allied troops were exhausted and morale had fallen. After a modest British advance, German counter-attacks recovered most of the ground lost opposite Passchendaele, except for an area on the right of the Wallemolen spur. North of Poelcappelle, the XIV Corps of the Fifth Army advanced along the Broembeek some way up the Watervlietbeek and the Stadenrevebeek streams and the Guards Division captured the west end of the Vijwegen spur, gaining observation over the south end of Houthulst Forest.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|pp=341–344}} There were {{nowrap|13,000 Allied}} casualties, including {{nowrap|2,735 New}} Zealanders, {{nowrap|845 of}} whom were dead or stranded in the mud of no-man's-land; it was one of the worst days in New Zealand military history.{{sfn|Liddle|1997|p=285}}<!--including {{nowrap|about 3,700 New}} Zealanders, {{nowrap|842 of}} whom were dead or stranded in the mud of no-man's-land;<ref>{{citechú thích web|url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/war/western-front-1917#heading5|title=1917: Arras, Messines and Passchendaele - 1917: Arras, Messines and Passchendaele - NZHistory, New Zealand history online|website=nzhistory.govt.nz|accessdate=ngày 31 Julytháng 7 năm 2017}}</ref>need printed sources for this if possible-->
 
At a conference on 13 October, Haig and the army commanders agreed that attacks would stop until the weather improved and roads could be extended, to carry more artillery and ammunition forward. The offensive was to continue, to reach a suitable line for the winter and to keep German attention on Flanders, with a French attack due on 23 October and the Third Army operation south of Arras scheduled for mid-November.{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|pp=345–346}} The battle was also costly for the Germans, who lost more than {{nowrap|1,000 prisoners.}}{{sfn|Boraston|1919|p=130}} The German 195th Division at Passchendaele suffered {{nowrap|3,325}} casualties from 9 to 12 October and had to be relieved by the 238th Division.{{sfn|Sheldon|2007|p=236}} Ludendorff became optimistic that Passchendaele Ridge could be held and ordered the 4th Army to stand fast.{{sfn|Sheldon|2007|p=233}} On 18 October, Kuhl advocated a retreat as far to the east as possible; Armin and Lossberg wanted to hold on, because the ground beyond the Passchendaele [[Drainage divide|watershed]] was untenable, even in winter.{{sfn|Terraine|1977|p=305}}
 
==== Action of 22 October ====
{{main|Action of ngày 22 Octobertháng 10 năm 1917}}
 
On 22 October the 18th (Eastern) Division of XVIII Corps attacked the east end of Poelcappelle as XIV Corps to the north attacked with the 34th Division between the Watervlietbeek and Broenbeek streams and the 35th Division northwards into [[Houthulst|Houthulst Forest]]. The attack was supported by a regiment of the French 1st Division on the left flank of the 35th Division and was intended to obstruct a possible German counter-attack on the left flank of the Canadian Corps as it attacked Passchendaele and the ridge. The artillery of the Second and Fifth armies conducted a bombardment to simulate a general attack as a deception. Poelcappelle was captured but the attack at the junction between the 34th and 35th divisions was repulsed. German counter-attacks pushed back the 35th Division in the centre but the French attack captured all its objectives. Attacking on ground cut up by bombardments and soaked by rain, the British had struggled to advance in places and lost the ability to move quickly to outflank pillboxes. The 35th Division reached the fringe of Houthulst Forest but was outflanked and pushed back in places. German counter-attacks made after 22 October, were at an equal disadvantage and were costly failures. The German 4th Army was prevented from transferring troops away from the Fifth Army and from concentrating its artillery-fire on the Canadians as they prepared for the Second Battle of Passchendaele (26 October – ngày 10 Novembertháng 11 năm 1917).{{sfn|Perry|2014|pp=475–486}}
 
====Battle of La Malmaison====
Dòng 283:
{{Main article|Second Battle of Passchendaele}}
 
[[FileTập tin:Second Battle of Passchendaele - Barbed wire and Mud.jpg|thumb|{{centre|Terrain through which the Canadian Corps advanced at Passchendaele, in late 1917}}]]
[[FileTập tin:Landscape Passendale Tyne Cot 2.jpg|thumb|{{centre|Terrain at Passchendaele near where the Canadian Corps advanced, spring 2015}}]]
The British [[Fifth Army (United Kingdom)|Fifth Army]] undertook minor operations from {{nowrap|20–22 October,}} to maintain pressure on the Germans and support the French attack at La Malmaison, while the Canadian Corps prepared for a series of attacks from {{nowrap|26 October – 10 November.}}{{sfn|Bean|1941|p=930}}{{sfn|Edmonds|1991|p=347}} The four divisions of the Canadian Corps had been transferred to the [[Ypres Salient]] from Lens, to capture Passchendaele and the ridge.{{sfn|Bean|1941|p=929}} The Canadians relieved the [[II Anzac Corps]] on 18 October and found that the front line was mostly the same as that occupied by the [[1st Canadian Division]] in April 1915.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=312}} The Canadian operation was to be three limited attacks, on 26 October, 30 October and 6 November.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=314}} On 26 October, the 3rd Canadian Division captured its objective at Wolf Copse, then swung back its northern flank to link with the adjacent division of the Fifth Army. The 4th Canadian Division captured its objectives but was forced slowly to retire from Decline Copse, against German counter-attacks and communication failures between the Canadian and Australian units to the south.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=320}}
 
Dòng 291:
===December===
 
====Night action of 1/ngày 2 Decembertháng 12 năm 1917====
 
{{main|Night action of 1/ngày 2 Decembertháng 12 năm 1917}}
 
On 18 November the VIII Corps on the right and II Corps on the left (northern) side of the Passchendaele Salient took over from the Canadian Corps. The area was subjected to constant German artillery bombardments and its vulnerability to attack led to a suggestion by Brigadier C. F. Aspinall, that either the British should retire to the west side of the Gheluvelt Plateau or advance to broaden the salient towards Westroosebeke. Expanding the salient would make the troops in it less vulnerable to German artillery-fire and provide a better jumping off line for a resumption of the offensive in the spring of 1918. The British attacked towards Westroozebeke on the night of 1/2 December but the plan to mislead the Germans by not bombarding the German defences until eight minutes after the infantry began their advance came undone. The noise of the British assembly and the difficulty of moving across muddy and waterlogged ground had also alerted the Germans. In the moonlight, the Germans had seen the British troops when they were still {{convert|200|yd|m|abbr=on}} away. Some ground was captured and about {{nowrap|150 prisoners}} were taken but the attack on the redoubts failed and observation over the heads of the valleys on the east and north sides of the ridge was not achieved.{{sfn|LoCicero|2011|pp=155–338}}
Dòng 301:
{{main|Action on the Polderhoek Spur}}
 
The attack on the Polderhoek Spur on ngày 3 Decembertháng 12 năm 1917, was a local operation by the British [[Fourth Army (United Kingdom)|Fourth Army]] (renamed from the Second Army on 8 November). Two battalions of the [[2nd Infantry Brigade (New Zealand)|2nd New Zealand Brigade]] of the [[New Zealand Division]] attacked the low ridge, from which German observers could view the area from Cameron Covert to the north and the Menin road to the south-west. A New Zealand advance of {{convert|600|yd|m|abbr=on}} on a {{convert|400|yd|m|abbr=on}} front, would shield the area north of the Reutelbeek stream from German observers on the Gheluvelt spur. Heavy artillery bombarded the ruins of Polderhoek Château and the pillboxes in the grounds to mislead the defenders and the attack was made in daylight as a ruse to surprise the Germans, who would be under cover sheltering from the routine bombardments. Smoke and gas bombardments on the Gheluvelt and Becelaere spurs on the flanks and the infantry attack began at the same time as the "routine" bombardment. The ruse failed, some British artillery-fire dropped short on the New Zealanders and the Germans engaged the attackers with small-arms fire from Polderhoek Spur and Gheluvelt ridge. A strong west wind ruined the smoke screens and the British artillery failed to suppress the German machine-guns. New Zealand machine-gunners repulsed a counter-attack but the New Zealand infantry were {{convert|150|yd|m|abbr=on}} short of the first objective; another attempt after dark was cancelled because of the full moon and the arrival of German reinforcements.{{sfn|Stewart|2014|pp=304–314}}
 
==Aftermath==
Dòng 360:
====Winter, 1917–1918====
 
The area to the east and south of Passchendaele was held by posts, those to the east being fairly habitable, unlike the southern ones; from Passchendaele as far back as Potijze, the ground was far worse. Each brigade spent four days in the front line, four in support and four in reserve. The area was quiet apart from artillery-fire and in December the weather turned cold and snowy, which entailed a great effort to prevent [[trench foot]]. In January, spells of freezing cold were followed by warmer periods, one beginning on 15 January with torrential rain and gale-force winds, washing away plank roads and [[duckboard]] tracks.{{sfn|Boraston|Bax|1999|pp=167–168}} Conditions in the salient improved with the completion of transport routes and the refurbishment of German pillboxes. Both sides raided and the British used night machine-gun fire and artillery barrages to great effect.{{sfn|Seton Hutchinson|2005|pp=79–80}} On the evening of ngày 3 Marchtháng 3 năm 1918, two companies of the 8th Division raided Teal Cottage, supported by a smoke and shrapnel barrage, killed many of the garrison and took six prisoners for one man wounded.{{sfn|Boraston|Bax|1999|p=171}} A German attack on 11 March was repulsed; after that the Germans made no more attacks, keeping up frequent artillery bombardments and machine-gun fire instead.{{sfn|Gillon|2002|pp=180–183}} When the German armies further south began the [[Spring Offensive]] on ngày 21 Marchtháng 3 năm 1918, "good" divisions in Flanders were sent south; the 29th Division was withdrawn on 9 April and transferred to the Lys.{{sfn|Seton Hutchinson|2005|p=80}}{{sfn|Gillon|2002|p=186}}
 
====Retreat, 1918====
Dòng 370:
===Commemoration===
 
[[FileTập tin:View from top of Tyne Cot.JPG|thumb|{{centre|Tyne Cot Commonwealth War Graves Cemetery and Memorial to the Missing}}]]
The [[Menin Gate|Menin Gate Memorial to the Missing]] commemorates those of all Commonwealth nations (except New Zealand) who died in the Ypres Salient and have no known grave. In the case of the United Kingdom only casualties before ngày 16 Augusttháng 8 năm 1917 are commemorated on the memorial. United Kingdom and New Zealand servicemen who died after that date are named on the memorial at [[Tyne Cot Cemetery]]. There is a New Zealand Memorial marking where New Zealand troops fought at Gravenstafel Ridge on 4 October, located on Roeselarestraat.<ref>https://ngatapuwae.govt.nz/new-zealand-memorial-0</ref> There are numerous tributes and memorials in Australia and New Zealand to Anzac soldiers who died in the battle, including plaques at the [[Christchurch]] and [[Dunedin]] railway stations. The Canadian Corps' participation in the Second Battle of Passchendaele is commemorated with the [[Passchendaele Memorial]] at site of the Crest Farm on the south-west fringe of Passchendaele village.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}}
 
One of the newest monuments to be dedicated to the fighting contribution of a group is the [[Celtic Cross]] memorial, commemorating the Scottish contribution to the fighting in Flanders during the Great War. This memorial is on Frezenberg Ridge where the 9th (Scottish) Division and the 15th (Scottish) Division fought during the Third Battle of Ypres. The monument was dedicated by [[Linda Fabiani]], the Minister for Europe of the [[Scottish Parliament]], during the late summer of 2007, the 90th anniversary of the battle.{{sfn|SG|2007|nopp=y}} In July 2017 a two-day event was organised in Ypres to mark the centenary of the battle. Members of the [[British royal family|British Royal family]] and [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime-Minister]] [[Theresa May]] joined the ceremonies, which started in the evening of 30 July with the service at Menin Gate, followed by ceremonies at the Market Square. On the following day, a ceremony was held at Tyne Cot cemetery, headed by the [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince of Wales]].<ref>{{Citechú newsthích báo|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/30/duke-cambridge-leads-commemorations-100th-anniversary-battle/|title=Duke of Cambridge leads commemorations on 100th anniversary of the Battle of Passchendaele|work=The Telegraph|access-dateaccessdate = ngày 4 tháng 8 năm 2017-08-04 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Citechú newsthích báo|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/31/battle-passchendaele-centenary-prince-charles-lead-ceremony/|title=Battle of Passchendaele centenary: Prince Charles honours 'courage and bravery' of British soldiers|work=The Telegraph|access-dateaccessdate = ngày 4 tháng 8 năm 2017-08-04 |language=en-GB}}</ref>
 
==See alsoXem thêm ==
{{portal|World War I}}
* ''[[Passchendaele (film)|Passchendaele]]'' is a 2008 Canadian film with the battle as a backdrop.
 
==Notes Ghi chú ==
{{notelist|1}}
 
==Footnotes==
{{reflisttham khảo|20em}}
 
==References Tham khảo ==
{{Refbegin}}
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|title=The Origins of the War of 1914 |volume=III |last=Albertini |first=L. |authorlink=|year=2005 |orig-year=1952 |publisher=Enigma Books |location=New York |edition=repr. |isbn=978-1-929631-33-9}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Atkinson|2009}}
|title=The Seventh Division 1914–1918 |last=Atkinson |first=C. T. |authorlink= |year=2009 |orig-year=1927 |publisher=John Murray |location=London |edition=Naval & Military Press |isbn=978-1-84342-119-1}}
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|series=[[Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918]] |volume=IV |title=The Australian Imperial Force in France, 1917 |last=Bean |first=C. E. W. |authorlink=Charles Bean |year=1941 |orig-year=1933 |publisher=[[Australian War Memorial]] |location=Canberra |edition=online |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/RCDIG1069753/ |accessdate=ngày 21 Julytháng 7 năm 2017 |isbn=978-0-7022-1710-4}}
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* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Boraston|Bax|1999}}
|title= Eighth Division in War 1914–1918 |last2=Bax |first2=C. E. O. |last1=Boraston |first1=J. H. |year=1999 |orig-year=1926 |publisher=Medici Society |location=London |edition=repr. Naval & Military Press, Uckfield |isbn=978-1-897632-67-3}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Charteris|1929}}
|title=Field Marshal Earl Haig |last=Charteris |first=J. |authorlink= |year=1929 |publisher=Cassell |location=London |oclc=874765434}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Cruttwell|1940}}
|title=A History of the Great War 1914–1918 |last=Cruttwell |first=C. R. M. F. |authorlink=|year=1982 |orig-year=1940 |publisher=Granada |location=London |edition=repr. |isbn=978-0-586-08398-7}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Davidson|1953}}
|title=Haig: Master of the Field |last=Davidson |first=Sir J. |authorlink=|year=2010 |orig-year=1953 |publisher=Peter Nevill |location=London |edition=Pen & Sword |isbn=978-1-84884-362-2}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Reichsarchiv|1942}}
|series=Der Weltkrieg 1914 bis 1918: Militärischen Operationen zu Lande |volume=XIII |title=Die Kriegführung im Sommer und Herbst 1917 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |authorlink=|year=2012 |orig-year=1942 |others=pub. 1956 |publisher=Mittler |location=Berlin |url=https://digi.landesbibliothek.at/viewer/image/AC03617667/1/LOG_0003/ |accessdate=ngày 17 Novembertháng 11 năm 2012 |edition=Die digitale landesbibliotek Oberösterreich |oclc=257129831}}
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* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Edmonds|1925}}
|series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |title=Military Operations France and Belgium, 1914: Antwerp, La Bassée, Armentières, Messines and Ypres October–November 1914 |volume=II |last=Edmonds |first=J. E. |authorlink=James Edward Edmonds |year=1925 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |edition= |oclc=220044986}}
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* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Edmonds|Wynne|1940}}
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* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Falls|1940}}
|series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |title=Military Operations France and Belgium, 1917: The German Retreat to the Hindenburg Line and the Battles of Arras |volume=I |last=Falls |first=C. |authorlink=Cyril Falls |year=1992 |orig-year=1940 |publisher=HMSO |location=London |edition=Imperial War Museum and Battery Press |isbn=978-0-89839-180-0}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Edmonds|1991}}
|series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |title=Military Operations France and Belgium 1917: 7 June – 10 November. Messines and Third Ypres (Passchendaele) |volume=II |last=Edmonds |first=J. E. |year=1991 |orig-year=1948 |publisher=HMSO |location=London |edition=Imperial War Museum and Battery Press |isbn=978-0-89839-166-4}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Edmonds|Davies|Maxwell-Hyslop|1995}}
|series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents |title=Military Operations France and Belgium, 1918: March–April, Continuation of the German Offensives |volume=II |last1=Edmonds |first1=J. E. |last2=Davies |first2=C. B. |last3=Maxwell-Hyslop |first3=R. G. B. |year=1995 |orig-year=1937 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |edition=Imperial War Mmuseum and Battery Press |isbn=978-0-89839-223-4}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Falls|1959}}
|title=The Great War 1914–1918 |last=Falls |first=C. |year=1959 |publisher=Perigee |location=London |isbn=978-0-399-50100-5}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Foley|2007}}
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|title=The Strategy of the Lloyd George Coalition |last=French |first=D. |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-820559-3}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Gillon|2002}}
|title=The Story of 29th Division: A Record of Gallant Deeds |last=Gillon |first=S. |authorlink= |year=2002 |orig-year=1925 |publisher=Thos Nelson & Sons |location=London |edition=Naval & Military Press, Uckfield |isbn=978-1-84342-265-5}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Harris|1995}}
|title=Men, Ideas and Tanks: British Military Thought and Armoured Forces, 1903–1939 |last=Harris |first=J. P. |year=1995 |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester |isbn=978-0-7190-4814-2}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Harris|2008}}
|title=Douglas Haig and the First World War |last=Harris |first=J. P. |year=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-89802-7}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Hart|Steel|2001}}
|title=Passchendaele: the Sacrificial Ground |last1=Hart |first1=P. |last2=Steel |first2=N. |year= 2001 |publisher=Cassell |location=London |isbn=978-0-304-35975-2}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Henniker|1937}}
|series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |title=Transportation on the Western Front 1914–1918 |last=Henniker |first=A. M. |year=2009 |orig-year=1937 |publisher=HMSO |location=London |edition=Imperial War Museum and Battery Press |isbn=978-1-84574-765-7}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|USWD|1920}}
|series=Document (United States. War Department) |others=number 905 |title=Histories of Two Hundred and Fifty-one Divisions of the German Army which Participated in the War (1914–1918) |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |year=1920 |publisher=United States Army, American Expeditionary Forces, Intelligence Section |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://archive.org/details/historiestwohun00stafgoog |accessdate=ngày 22 Julytháng 7 năm 2017 |oclc=565067054}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Hussey|1997}}
|title=Passchendaele in Perspective: The Third Battle of Ypres |chapter=The Flanders Battleground and the Weather in 1917 |pages=140–158 |last=Hussey |first=John |editor-last=Liddle |editor-first=P. H. |authorlink= |year=1997 |publisher=Leo Cooper |location=London |isbn=978-0-85052-588-5}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Jones|1934}}
|title=The War in the Air Being the Part played in the Great War by the Royal Air Force |volume=IV |last=Jones |first=H. A. |year=2002 |orig-year=1934 |publisher=Clarendon Press |edition=Imperial War Museum and Battery Press |location=London |isbn=978-1-84342-415-4}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Liddle|1997}}
|title=Passchendaele in Perspective: The Third Battle of Ypres |last=Liddle |first=P. H. |authorlink= |year=1997 |publisher=Pen & Sword |location=Barnsley |isbn=978-0-85052-588-5}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Miles|1948}}
|series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |title=Military Operations France and Belgium 1917: The Battle of Cambrai |volume=III |last=Miles |first=W. |authorlink=|year=1991 |orig-year=1948 |publisher=HMSO |location=London |edition=Imperial War Museum and Battery Press |isbn=978-0-89839-162-6}}
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|title=Pessimism and British War Policy, 1916–1918 |last=Millman |first=B. |year=2001 |publisher=Frank Cass |location=London |isbn=978-0-7146-5079-1}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Nicholson|1962}}
|series=Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War |title=Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last=Nicholson |first=G. W. L. |year=1962 |publisher=Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location=Ottawa |url=https://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf |accessdate=ngày 27 Decembertháng 12 năm 2012 |oclc=557523890}}
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|title=To Play a Giant's Part: The Role of the British Army at Passchendaele |last=Perry |first=R. A. |authorlink= |year=2014 |publisher=Naval & Military Press |location=Uckfield |edition= |isbn=978-1-78331-146-0}}
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|title=Plumer: The Soldier's General |last=Powell |first=G. |authorlink=|year=2004 |orig-year=1993 |publisher=Pen & Sword |location=Barnsley |edition=Leo Cooper |isbn=978-1-84415-039-7}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Prior|Wilson|1996}}
|title=Passchendaele: The Untold Story |last1=Prior |first1=R. |last2=Wilson |first2=T. |year=1996 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |location=Cumberland |isbn=978-0-300-07227-3}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Rogers|2010}}
|title=Landrecies to Cambrai: Case Studies of German Offensive and Defensive Operations on the Western Front 1914–17 |editor-last=Rogers |editor-first=D. |authorlink= |year=2010 |publisher=Helion |location=Solihull |isbn=978-1-906033-76-7}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Sandilands|2003}}
|title=The 23rd Division 1914–1919 |last=Sandilands |first=H. R. |authorlink= |year=2003 |orig-year=1925 |publisher=Wm. Blackwood |location=Edinburgh |edition=Naval & Military Press |isbn=978-1-84342-641-7}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Seton Hutchinson|2005}}
|title=The Thirty-Third Division in France and Flanders 1915–1919 |last=Seton Hutchinson |first=G. |authorlink=|year=2005 |orig-year=1921 |publisher=Waterlow & Sons |location=London |edition=Naval & Military Press, Uckfield |isbn=978-1-84342-995-1}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Sheffield|2001}}
|title=Forgotten Victory: The First World War: Myths and Realities |last=Sheffield |first=G. |authorlink=|year=2002 |orig-year=2001 |publisher=Headline Book Publishing |location=London |edition=reprint |isbn=978-0-7472-7157-4}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Sheffield|2011}}
|title=The Chief: Douglas Haig and the British Army |last=Sheffield |first=G. |authorlink= |year=2011 |publisher=Aurum Press |location=London |isbn=978-1-84513-691-8}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Sheldon|2007}}
|title=The German Army at Passchendaele |last=Sheldon |first= J. |year=2007 |publisher=Pen and Sword Books |location=Barnsley |isbn=978-1-84415-564-4}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Sheldon|2009}}
|title=The German Army at Cambrai |last=Sheldon |first=J. |authorlink= |year=2009 |publisher=Pen & Sword |location=Barnsley |isbn=978-1-84415-944-4}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách | ref={{harvid|Stewart|2014}}
|title=The New Zealand Division 1916–1919: A Popular History Based on Official Records |last=Stewart |first=H. |year=2014 |orig-year=1921 |publisher=Whitcombe and Tombs |location=Auckland |url=http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Fran.html |accessdate=ngày 20 Julytháng 7 năm 2017 |isbn=978-1-84342-408-6}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Taylor|1972}}
|title=The First World War. An Illustrated History |last=Taylor |first= A. J. P. |authorlink=A.J.P. Taylor |year=1972 |publisher=Perigee Trade |location=New York |isbn=978-0-399-50260-6}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Terraine|1977}}
|title=The Road to Passchendaele: The Flanders Offensive 1917, A Study in Inevitability |last=Terraine |first=J. |authorlink=John Terraine |year=1977 |publisher=Leo Cooper |location=London |isbn=978-0-436-51732-7}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Terraine|1999}}
|title=Business in Great Waters |last=Terraine |first=J. |year=1999 |publisher=Wordsworth Editions |location=Ware |isbn=978-1-84022-201-2}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Terraine|1963}}
|title=Douglas Haig: The Educated Soldier |last=Terraine |first=J. |year=1963 |publisher=Cassell |location=London |edition=2005 |isbn=978-0-304-35319-4}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách| ref={{harvid|Vance|1997}}
|title=Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning and the First World War |last=Vance |first=J. F. |year=1997 |publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=978-0-7748-0600-8}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Wolff|1958}}
|title=In Flanders Fields: The 1917 Campaign |last=Wolff |first= L. |year=1958 |publisher=Viking |location=New York |isbn=978-0-14-014662-2}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |ref={{harvid|Wynne|1939}}
|title=If Germany Attacks: The Battle in Depth in the West |last=Wynne |first=G. C. |authorlink= |year=1976 |orig-year=1939 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Cambridge |edition=Greenwood Press, Westport, CT |isbn=978-0-8371-5029-1}}
 
'''Journals'''
* {{cite journal |ref={{harvid|McRandle|Quirk|2006}}
|title=The Blood Test Revisited: A New Look at German Casualty Counts in World War I |last1=McRandle |first1=J. H. |last2=Quirk |first2=J. |authorlink= |publisher=The Journal of Military History |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_military_history/v070/70.3mcrandle.html |location=Lexington, VA |volume=70 |date=ngày 3 Julytháng 7 năm 2006 |pages=667–701 |issn=0899-3718}}
 
'''Theses'''
* {{cite thesis |ref={{harvid|LoCicero|2011}}
|title=A Moonlight Massacre: The Night Operation on the Passchendaele Ridge, 2nd December 1917 |last=LoCicero |first=M. S. |authorlink=|year=2011 |publisher=Birmingham University Centre for First World War Studies |location=Birmingham |type=PhD |url=http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.545631 |docket=uk.bl.ethos.545631 |accessdate=ngày 20 Julytháng 7 năm 2017 |oclc=784568126}}
* {{cite thesis |ref={{harvid|Marble|1998}}
|title=The Infantry cannot do with a Gun Less: The Place of the Artillery in the BEF, 1914–1918 |last=Marble |first=S. |authorlink= |year=2003 |orig-year=1998 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |type=PhD |url=https://ethos.bl.uk:8080/SearchResults.do |accessdate=ngày 23 Marchtháng 3 năm 2014 |isbn=978-0-231-50219-1}}
* {{cite thesis |ref={{harvid|Simpson|2001}}
|title=The Operational Role of British Corps Command on the Western Front 1914–18 |last=Simpson |first=A. |authorlink= |year=2001 |publisher=London University |type=PhD |location=London |url=https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?did=1&uin=uk.bl.ethos.367588 |accessdate=ngày 16 Januarytháng 1 năm 2017 |oclc=557496951}}
 
'''Websites'''
* {{citechú thích web |ref={{harvid|SG|2007}} |title=Tribute to Scots Soldiers at Passchendaele |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=ngày 24 Augusttháng 8 năm 2007 |website=The Scottish Government |url=http://scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2007/08/24115256 |accessdate=ngày 22 Decembertháng 12 năm 2014 |archiveurl=https://wayback.archive-it.org/3011/20130203093717/http://scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2007/08/24115256 |archivedate=ngày 3 Februarytháng 2 năm 2013 |df=dmy-all }}
{{Refend}}
 
== Đọc thêm ==
==Further reading==
* {{citechú bookthích sách |series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |title=Military Operations France and Belgium, 1918: March – April: Continuation of the German Offensives |volume=II |last1=Davies |first1=C. B. |last2=Edmonds |first2=J. E. |last3=Maxwell-Hyslop |first3=R. G. B. |year=1995 |orig-year=1937 |publisher=[[HMSO]] |location=London |edition=Imperial War Museum and Battery Press |isbn=978-0-89839-223-4}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |title=Military Operations France and Belgium, 1918: 26th September–11th November The Advance to Victory |volume=V |last1=Edmonds |first1=J. E. |last2=Maxwell-Hyslop |first2=R. G. B. |year=1993 |orig-year=1947 |publisher=HMSO |location=London |edition=Imperial War Museum and Battery Press |isbn=978-0-89839-192-3}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |title=Plumer of Messines |last=Harington |first=C. |authorlink=Charles Harington Harington |year=2017 |orig-year=1935 |publisher=John Murray |location=London |edition=facsimile pbk. Gyan Books, India |others=converted isbn 978-4-00-608977-1 |id=4-44406-089779 |oclc=186736178}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |title=Passchendaele: A New History |last=Lloyd |first=N. |authorlink= |year=2017 |publisher=Viking |location=London |edition= |isbn=978-0-241-00436-4}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |title=To Play a Giant's Part: The Role of the British Army at Passchendaele |last=Perry |first=R. A. |authorlink= |year=2014 |publisher=Naval & Military Press |location=Uckfield |edition= |isbn=978-1-78331-146-0}}
* {{citechú bookthích sách |title=Haig's Command: A Reassessment |last=Winter |first=D. |authorlink=|year=1992 |orig-year=1991 |publisher=Viking |location=New York |edition=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-007144-3}}
 
== Liên kết ngoài ==
==External links==
{{commons category|Third Battle of Ypres}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141224145711/http://www.cwgc.org/ypres/content.asp?menuid=36&submenuid=38&id=38&menuname=Third_Ypres&menu=sub Third Ypres, Commonwealth War Graves Commission]
Dòng 521:
* [http://www.firstworldwar.com/battles/ypres3.htm Battles: The Third Battle of Ypres, 1917]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130528180500/http://www.wo1.be/eng/mainnav.html Westhoek The great war in Flanders Fields – A war and peace experience]
* [http://we-will-remember.tripod.com/ Second Lieutenant Robert Riddel, Military Cross, 10th Battalion Argyll & Sutherland Highlanders, Passchendaele, ngày 12 Octobertháng 10 năm 1917]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071114212442/http://www.radiowaves.co.uk/story.aspx?lngStoryID=11729 Guernsey students re-trace a soldier's journey to Passchendaele, for Radiowaves (2007)]
* [http://thelandofgrimney.co.uk/stories.php?ID=78 Passchendaele – The Final Call – James Willard]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6386991.stm Uncovering the secrets of Ypres, Robert Hall, ngày 23 Februarytháng 2 năm 2007. BBC News, Belgium]
* [http://forum.irishmilitaryonline.com/showthread.php?t=11535&page=1 The Battle of Passchendaele. Day by day description of the battle (with maps)]
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1092082/reference Canadian movie of the battle]
Dòng 534:
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Passchendaele, Battle of}}
[[CategoryThể loại:Conflicts in 1917]]
[[CategoryThể loại:1917 in Belgium]]
[[CategoryThể loại:Battles of World War I involving Australia]]
[[CategoryThể loại:Battles of World War I involving Belgium]]
[[CategoryThể loại:Battles of World War I involving Canada]]
[[CategoryThể loại:Battles of World War I involving France]]
[[CategoryThể loại:Battles of World War I involving Germany]]
[[CategoryThể loại:Battles of World War I involving New Zealand]]
[[CategoryThể loại:Battles of World War I involving South Africa]]
[[CategoryThể loại:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[CategoryThể loại:Battles of the Western Front (World War I)]]
[[CategoryThể loại:Battle of Passchendaele|Battle of Passchendaele]]
[[CategoryThể loại:Battle honours of the Rifle Brigade]]
[[CategoryThể loại:Events of National Historic Significance (Canada)]]
[[CategoryThể loại:Ypres|Battle of Passchendaele]]
[[Thể loại:Xung đột năm 1917]]
Lấy từ “https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trận_Passchendaele”