Khác biệt giữa bản sửa đổi của “Phấn phủ”
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'''Phấn phủ''' là [[mỹ phẩm]] thoa lên mặt để phục vụ cho nhiều chức năng khác nhau, điển hình là trang điểm đẹp da mặt. Có nguồn gốc từ [[Ai Cập cổ đại]], phấn phủ đã dùng cho những ứng dụng xã hội khác nhau giữa các nền văn hóa và trong thời hiện đại, nó thường được sử dụng để trang điểm, làm sáng da và tạo đường nét cho khuôn mặt.
Phấn phủ thường có hai loại chính. Một trong số đó là phấn phủ dạng bột, được sử dụng để hỗ trợ da dầu hấp thụ độ ẩm dư thừa và làm mịn khuôn mặt để giảm độ bóng. Loại còn lại là phấn nén giúp che khuyết điểm và tối đa hóa độ che phủ.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Kirk-Othmer.|title=Kirk-Othmer Chemical Technology of Cosmetics.|date=2012|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-118-51898-4|location=Hoboken|oclc=823726450}}</ref>
Việc sử dụng phấn phủ đã góp phần vào các tiêu chuẩn làm đẹp xuyên suốt lịch sử. Ở [[Lịch sử châu Âu|châu Âu]] và [[Lịch sử châu Á|châu Á]] cổ đại, khuôn mặt trắng trẻo với làn da mịn màng là biểu hiệu một người phụ nữ có địa vị cao.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Stewart|first=S.|title=Painted faces : a colourful history of cosmetics|publisher=Amberley Publishing|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4456-5399-0|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|pages=66|oclc=1021835636}}</ref> Sự thịnh hành của xu hướng này đã thực hiện trong suốt các cuộc [[Thập tự chinh]] và [[thời Trung cổ]]. Trong thời gian này, phụ nữ đã sử dụng các thành phần có hại làm phấn phủ bao gồm [[chất tẩy trắng]], [[chì]] và [[dung dịch kiềm]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.makeup.com/product-and-reviews/all-products-and-reviews/history-of-face-powder|title=Where Did Face Powder Come From? {{!}} Makeup.com by L'Oréal|tác giả=|last=Kilkeary|first=A.M.|date=|website=makeup.com|language=en-US|archive-url=|archive-date=|url hỏng=|access-date=2020-05-22}}</ref>
==Lịch sử==
[[Tập_tin:Cosmetic_jar_MET_26.7.1435.jpg|thế=|nhỏ|280x280px|A stone cosmetics jar retrieved from ancient Egyptian remains]]
Archaeological remains and chemical analyses indicate the use of face powder dating back from between 2000 and 1200 BC, and include lead fibres, a common cosmetic ingredient used in ancient Egypt.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Walter|first1=P.|last2=Martinetto|first2=P.|last3=Tsoucaris|first3=G.|last4=Brniaux|first4=R.|last5=Lefebvre|first5=M. A.|last6=Richard|first6=G.|last7=Talabot|first7=J.|last8=Dooryhee|first8=E.|date=February 1999|title=Making make-up in Ancient Egypt|journal=Nature|volume=397|issue=6719|pages=483–484|bibcode=1999Natur.397..483W|doi=10.1038/17240|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> [[Kohl (cosmetics)|Kohl]] jars used to store [[Eye liner|eyeliner]] as well as stone containers holding face powder were discovered in graves as this promised the ancient Egyptians eternal beauty in the afterlife.<ref name=":7" /> Men and women used an early form of [[Rouge (cosmetics)|rouge]] powdered blush for their cheeks which was made from red ochre.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|title=Face Paint : the story of makeup|last=Eldridge|first=L.|date=2015|publisher=Abrams Image|isbn=978-1-4197-1796-3|location=|pages=43|oclc=943052433}}</ref> [[Cleopatra]] heavily influenced the [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] beauty standard with a distinctive make-up style, inspiring the ancient Egyptians to paint their eyes with green and blue powders.<ref name=":11" /> Face powder was also considered to have medicinal purposes to protect people from illness.<ref name=":7" />
=== Greece ===
Ancient Egyptian beauty trends travelled across the Mediterranean and influenced cosmetic practices in Greece. Using similar ingredients, [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] used [[cinnabar]] as a powdered [[Rouge (cosmetics)|rouge]] for the face as well as brightening their [[complexion]] with [[white lead]].<ref name=":10" /> While the desire for a white complexion represented social ideas about race superiority, skin tone also enforced gender as in ancient times, women were paler than men, due to having less haemoglobin.<ref name=":10" /> A sign of belonging to the upper class was white, unblemished skin free from sun-exposure, as it was the life of wealthy women that involved staying indoors. Traces of the skin-lightening face powder made from white lead have been uncovered from the graves of wealthy ancient Greek women.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Rituals of death and dying in modern and ancient Greece : writing history from a female perspective.|last=Håland|first=E. J.|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4438-6859-4|location=Newcastle upon Tyne|pages=502|oclc=892799127}}</ref> The city of [[Athens]] was nearby the [[Mines of Laurion|Laurion mines]], from which the Greeks extracted vast amounts of [[silver]] and obtained a great deal of their wealth through trade. White lead was found in the mines as a by-product of the silver,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jones|first=John Ellis|date=October 1982|title=The Laurion Silver Mines: A Review of Recent Researches and Results|journal=Greece and Rome|volume=29|issue=2|pages=169–183|doi=10.1017/s0017383500027522|issn=0017-3835}}</ref> from which ancient Greeks produced face powder. The use of face powder also appears in the work of ancient Greek writers. Writer and historian [[Xenophon]] writes of women who "rubbed in white lead to the face to appear whiter"<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bradley|first1=Patrick J.|last2=Xenophon|last3=Pomeroy|first3=Sarah B.|date=1999|title=Xenophon: Oeconomicus: A Social and Historical Commentary|journal=The Classical World|volume=92|issue=5|pages=477|doi=10.2307/4352336|issn=0009-8418|jstor=4352336}}</ref> in his book [[Oeconomicus|''Oeconominicus'']]. Ancient Greek poet [[Eubulus (poet)|Eubulus]] in his play ''Stephanopolides'' compares lower class and upper class women, declaring that poor women "are not plastered over with white lead".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Courtesans at Table : Gender and Greek Literary Culture in Athenaeus.|last=McClure, Laura.|date=2014|publisher=Taylor and Francis|isbn=978-1-317-79415-8|oclc=871224539}}</ref> While it was known the white lead was poisonous, the ancient Greeks were not deterred from applying the face powder to fulfil their beauty standards.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Panas|first1=Marios|last2=Poulakou-Rebelakou|first2=Effie|last3=Kalfakis|first3=Nicoalos|last4=Vassilopoulos|first4=Dimitrios|date=September 2012|title=The Byzantine Empress Zoe Porphyrogenita and the quest for eternal youth: Empress Zoe's quest for eternal youth|journal=Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology|language=en|volume=11|issue=3|pages=245–248|doi=10.1111/j.1473-2165.2012.00629.x|pmid=22938012}}</ref>
=== Rome ===
The ancient Roman use of face powder was centred around the Roman ideal of [[femininity]] and beauty standards, expressing signs of social and health status.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=OLSON|first=KELLY|date=2009|title=Cosmetics in Roman Antiquity: Substance, Remedy, Poison|journal=The Classical World|volume=102|issue=3|pages=291–310|issn=0009-8418|jstor=40599851}}</ref> The pale complexion was desired by Roman women and is frequently expressed in the poetry of ancient Roman poet [[Ovid]].<ref name=":8" /> Small glass jars and [[Makeup brush|brushes]] from archaeological remains suggest the storage and use of face powder.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=Illustrated encyclopedia of ancient Rome|last=Corbishley|first=M|date=2003|publisher=J. Paul Getty Museum|isbn=0-89236-705-9|location=Los Angeles, CA|pages=46|oclc=54950064}}</ref> Ancient Roman poets [[Juvenal]] and [[Martial]] mention a mistress named "Chione" in their works, which literally translates to "snowy" or "cold",<ref name=":13" /> referring to the desired fair complexion of ancient Roman women. Skin whitening as well as sun-blocking were practiced by applying face powder in the form of ''cerussa'', which was a mix of white lead shavings and vinegar.<ref name=":13" /> Roman women wished to conceal blemishes and freckles, as well as smoothing the skin using this powder. [[Chalk]] was also used to whiten the skin, as well as powdered ash and saffron on the eyes.<ref name=":14" />
=== China ===
Ancient Chinese women desired whitened skin for beauty as their use of face powder dates back to the [[Spring and Autumn period|Spring and Autumn Period]] from 770-476 BC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html|title=How cosmetics were created in ancient China - Chinadaily.com.cn|last=刘瑜芬|date=April 21, 2018|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-05-22|url-status=live}}</ref> An early form of face powder was prepared by grinding fine rice which was applied to the face.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book|title=For appearance' sake : the historical encyclopedia of good looks, beauty, and grooming|last=Sherrow|first=V|date=2001|publisher=Oryx Press|isbn=1-57356-204-1|location=Phoenix, Ariz.|pages=75|oclc=44461780}}</ref> In addition, [[Pearl|pearls]] were crushed to create [[pearl powder]] that improved facial appearance and was also used as a medicine to treat eye diseases, [[acne]] and [[tuberculosis]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whiterskin.info/the-use-of-pearl-powder-for-beautiful-youthful-skin-through-the-ages/|title=The use of pearl powder for beautiful, youthful skin through the ages – WHITERskin|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-28}}</ref> Chinese empress [[Wu Zetian]] used pearl powder to maintain radiant skin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schafer|first=Edward H.|date=1956|title=The Early History of Lead Pigments and Cosmetics in China|journal=T'oung Pao|volume=44|issue=1|pages=413–438|doi=10.1163/156853256x00135|issn=0082-5433}}</ref> Lead was also a common ingredient used for face powder and remained popular for its skin-whitening properties.<ref name=":15" />
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