Khác biệt giữa bản sửa đổi của “Phấn phủ”

 

==Lịch sử==

[[Tập_tin:Cosmetic_jar_MET_26.7.1435.jpg|thế=|nhỏ|280x280px|A stone cosmetics jar retrieved from ancient Egyptian remains]]

Archaeological remains and chemical analyses indicate the use of face powder dating back from between 2000 and 1200 BC, and include lead fibres, a common cosmetic ingredient used in ancient Egypt.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Walter|first1=P.|last2=Martinetto|first2=P.|last3=Tsoucaris|first3=G.|last4=Brniaux|first4=R.|last5=Lefebvre|first5=M. A.|last6=Richard|first6=G.|last7=Talabot|first7=J.|last8=Dooryhee|first8=E.|date=February 1999|title=Making make-up in Ancient Egypt|journal=Nature|volume=397|issue=6719|pages=483–484|bibcode=1999Natur.397..483W|doi=10.1038/17240|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> [[Kohl (cosmetics)|Kohl]] jars used to store [[Eye liner|eyeliner]] as well as stone containers holding face powder were discovered in graves as this promised the ancient Egyptians eternal beauty in the afterlife.<ref name=":7" /> Men and women used an early form of [[Rouge (cosmetics)|rouge]] powdered blush for their cheeks which was made from red ochre.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|title=Face Paint : the story of makeup|last=Eldridge|first=L.|date=2015|publisher=Abrams Image|isbn=978-1-4197-1796-3|location=|pages=43|oclc=943052433}}</ref> [[Cleopatra]] heavily influenced the [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] beauty standard with a distinctive make-up style, inspiring the ancient Egyptians to paint their eyes with green and blue powders.<ref name=":11" /> Face powder was also considered to have medicinal purposes to protect people from illness.<ref name=":7" />

 

Ancient Egyptian beauty trends travelled across the Mediterranean and influenced cosmetic practices in Greece. Using similar ingredients, [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] used [[cinnabar]] as a powdered [[Rouge (cosmetics)|rouge]] for the face as well as brightening their [[complexion]] with [[white lead]].<ref name=":10" /> While the desire for a white complexion represented social ideas about race superiority, skin tone also enforced gender as in ancient times, women were paler than men, due to having less haemoglobin.<ref name=":10" /> A sign of belonging to the upper class was white, unblemished skin free from sun-exposure, as it was the life of wealthy women that involved staying indoors. Traces of the skin-lightening face powder made from white lead have been uncovered from the graves of wealthy ancient Greek women.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Rituals of death and dying in modern and ancient Greece : writing history from a female perspective.|last=Håland|first=E. J.|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4438-6859-4|location=Newcastle upon Tyne|pages=502|oclc=892799127}}</ref> The city of [[Athens]] was nearby the [[Mines of Laurion|Laurion mines]], from which the Greeks extracted vast amounts of [[silver]] and obtained a great deal of their wealth through trade. White lead was found in the mines as a by-product of the silver,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jones|first=John Ellis|date=October 1982|title=The Laurion Silver Mines: A Review of Recent Researches and Results|journal=Greece and Rome|volume=29|issue=2|pages=169–183|doi=10.1017/s0017383500027522|issn=0017-3835}}</ref> from which ancient Greeks produced face powder. The use of face powder also appears in the work of ancient Greek writers. Writer and historian [[Xenophon]] writes of women who "rubbed in white lead to the face to appear whiter"<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bradley|first1=Patrick J.|last2=Xenophon|last3=Pomeroy|first3=Sarah B.|date=1999|title=Xenophon: Oeconomicus: A Social and Historical Commentary|journal=The Classical World|volume=92|issue=5|pages=477|doi=10.2307/4352336|issn=0009-8418|jstor=4352336}}</ref> in his book [[Oeconomicus|''Oeconominicus'']]. Ancient Greek poet [[Eubulus (poet)|Eubulus]] in his play ''Stephanopolides'' compares lower class and upper class women, declaring that poor women "are not plastered over with white lead".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Courtesans at Table : Gender and Greek Literary Culture in Athenaeus.|last=McClure, Laura.|date=2014|publisher=Taylor and Francis|isbn=978-1-317-79415-8|oclc=871224539}}</ref> While it was known the white lead was poisonous, the ancient Greeks were not deterred from applying the face powder to fulfil their beauty standards.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Panas|first1=Marios|last2=Poulakou-Rebelakou|first2=Effie|last3=Kalfakis|first3=Nicoalos|last4=Vassilopoulos|first4=Dimitrios|date=September 2012|title=The Byzantine Empress Zoe Porphyrogenita and the quest for eternal youth: Empress Zoe's quest for eternal youth|journal=Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology|language=en|volume=11|issue=3|pages=245–248|doi=10.1111/j.1473-2165.2012.00629.x|pmid=22938012}}</ref>

 

The ancient Roman use of face powder was centred around the Roman ideal of [[femininity]] and beauty standards, expressing signs of social and health status.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=OLSON|first=KELLY|date=2009|title=Cosmetics in Roman Antiquity: Substance, Remedy, Poison|journal=The Classical World|volume=102|issue=3|pages=291–310|issn=0009-8418|jstor=40599851}}</ref> The pale complexion was desired by Roman women and is frequently expressed in the poetry of ancient Roman poet [[Ovid]].<ref name=":8" /> Small glass jars and [[Makeup brush|brushes]] from archaeological remains suggest the storage and use of face powder.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=Illustrated encyclopedia of ancient Rome|last=Corbishley|first=M|date=2003|publisher=J. Paul Getty Museum|isbn=0-89236-705-9|location=Los Angeles, CA|pages=46|oclc=54950064}}</ref> Ancient Roman poets [[Juvenal]] and [[Martial]] mention a mistress named "Chione" in their works, which literally translates to "snowy" or "cold",<ref name=":13" /> referring to the desired fair complexion of ancient Roman women. Skin whitening as well as sun-blocking were practiced by applying face powder in the form of ''cerussa'', which was a mix of white lead shavings and vinegar.<ref name=":13" /> Roman women wished to conceal blemishes and freckles, as well as smoothing the skin using this powder. [[Chalk]] was also used to whiten the skin, as well as powdered ash and saffron on the eyes.<ref name=":14" />

 

Ancient Chinese women desired whitened skin for beauty as their use of face powder dates back to the [[Spring and Autumn period|Spring and Autumn Period]] from 770-476 BC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html|title=How cosmetics were created in ancient China - Chinadaily.com.cn|last=刘瑜芬|date=April 21, 2018|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-05-22|url-status=live}}</ref> An early form of face powder was prepared by grinding fine rice which was applied to the face.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book|title=For appearance' sake : the historical encyclopedia of good looks, beauty, and grooming|last=Sherrow|first=V|date=2001|publisher=Oryx Press|isbn=1-57356-204-1|location=Phoenix, Ariz.|pages=75|oclc=44461780}}</ref> In addition, [[Pearl|pearls]] were crushed to create [[pearl powder]] that improved facial appearance and was also used as a medicine to treat eye diseases, [[acne]] and [[tuberculosis]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whiterskin.info/the-use-of-pearl-powder-for-beautiful-youthful-skin-through-the-ages/|title=The use of pearl powder for beautiful, youthful skin through the ages – WHITERskin|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-28}}</ref> Chinese empress [[Wu Zetian]] used pearl powder to maintain radiant skin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schafer|first=Edward H.|date=1956|title=The Early History of Lead Pigments and Cosmetics in China|journal=T'oung Pao|volume=44|issue=1|pages=413–438|doi=10.1163/156853256x00135|issn=0082-5433}}</ref> Lead was also a common ingredient used for face powder and remained popular for its skin-whitening properties.<ref name=":15" />