Khác biệt giữa bản sửa đổi của “Phấn phủ”
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Dòng 6:
Việc sử dụng phấn phủ đã góp phần vào các tiêu chuẩn làm đẹp xuyên suốt lịch sử. Ở [[Lịch sử châu Âu|châu Âu]] và [[Lịch sử châu Á|châu Á]] cổ đại, khuôn mặt trắng trẻo với làn da mịn màng là biểu hiệu một người phụ nữ có địa vị cao.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Stewart|first=S.|title=Painted faces : a colourful history of cosmetics|publisher=Amberley Publishing|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4456-5399-0|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|pages=66|oclc=1021835636}}</ref> Sự thịnh hành của xu hướng này đã thực hiện trong suốt các cuộc [[Thập tự chinh]] và [[thời Trung cổ]]. Trong thời gian này, phụ nữ đã sử dụng các thành phần có hại làm phấn phủ bao gồm [[chất tẩy trắng]], [[chì]] và [[dung dịch kiềm]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.makeup.com/product-and-reviews/all-products-and-reviews/history-of-face-powder|title=Where Did Face Powder Come From? {{!}} Makeup.com by L'Oréal|tác giả=|last=Kilkeary|first=A.M.|date=|website=makeup.com|language=en-US|archive-url=|archive-date=|url hỏng=|access-date=2020-05-22}}</ref>
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=== Ai Cập ===
[[Tập_tin:Cosmetic_jar_MET_26.7.1435.jpg|thế=|nhỏ|280x280px|A stone cosmetics jar retrieved from ancient Egyptian remains]]
Dòng 20:
Phụ nữ Trung Quốc cổ đại mong muốn có làn da trắng để làm đẹp cũng như sử dụng phấn phủ có từ thời [[Xuân Thu]] từ năm 770-476 trước Công nguyên.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html|title=How cosmetics were created in ancient China - Chinadaily.com.cn|tác giả=|last=刘瑜芬|tên=|date=April 21, 2018|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn|archive-url=|archive-date=|url hỏng=|access-date=2020-05-22}}</ref> Một dạng phấn phủ cổ xưa được chế biến bằng cách xay gạo mịn và đắp lên mặt.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book|title=For appearance' sake : the historical encyclopedia of good looks, beauty, and grooming|last=Sherrow|first=V|date=2001|publisher=Oryx Press|isbn=1-57356-204-1|location=Phoenix, Ariz.|pages=75|oclc=44461780}}</ref> Ngoài ra, [[ngọc trai]] còn được nghiền nát để tạo ra [[bột ngọc trai]] giúp cải thiện sắc mặt và cũng được dùng làm thuốc chữa các bệnh về mắt, [[mụn trứng cá]] và [[bệnh lao]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whiterskin.info/the-use-of-pearl-powder-for-beautiful-youthful-skin-through-the-ages/|title=The use of pearl powder for beautiful, youthful skin through the ages – WHITERskin|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-28}}</ref> Nữ hoàng [[Võ Tắc Thiên]] đã sử dụng bột ngọc trai để duy trì làn da rạng rỡ.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schafer|first=Edward H.|date=1956|title=The Early History of Lead Pigments and Cosmetics in China|journal=T'oung Pao|volume=44|issue=1|pages=413–438|doi=10.1163/156853256x00135|issn=0082-5433}}</ref> Chì cũng là thành phần phổ biến được sử dụng cho phấn phủ và vẫn được ưa chuộng vì đặc tính làm trắng da của nó.<ref name=":15" />
== Thời kỳ Phục Hưng ==
[[Tập_tin:Elizabeth_I_in_coronation_robes.jpg|thế=|nhỏ|322x322px|Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I with whitened, powdered skin]]
Vào thời kỳ dịch bệnh hoành hành, vẻ đẹp ở thời [[Trung Cổ]] được đặc trưng bởi làn da trắng sáng, biểu hiện của khả năng sinh sản và sức khỏe tốt.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Middle Ages unlocked : a guide to life in Medieval England, 1050-1300|last=Polack|first=G|publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited|others=Kania, Katrin,, Chadwick, Elizabeth, 1957-|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4456-4583-4|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|pages=|oclc=918398645}}</ref> Phấn phủ bằng chì liên tục được tầng lớp quý tộc dùng trong suốt thế kỷ 16 như [[Nữ hoàng Elizabeth I]]; đây là loại phấn phủ để che giấu vết sẹo đậu mùa của bà.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/09/ingredients-lipstick-makeup-cosmetics-science-history/|title=Arsenic Pills and Lead Foundation: The History of Toxic Makeup|last=Little|first=B.|date=2016-09-22|website=National Geographic News|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-05-22|url-status=live}}</ref> Nguyên nhân hàng đầu dẫn đến cái chết của nữ hoàng là nhiễm độc máu, chủ yếu do bà sử dụng mỹ phẩm trang điểm có chứa chất độc hại, bao gồm cả phấn phủ chứa chì.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/discover/explore/little-known-or-unknown-facts-regarding-queen-elizabeth-is-death|title=Little-Known or Unknown Facts Regarding Queen Elizabeth I's Death|date=2018-03-01|website=Royal Museums Greenwich|language=en|access-date=2020-05-22}}</ref> Trong [[Thời kỳ Victoria]], trang điểm ít phổ biến do phụ nữ muốn trông đẹp tự nhiên và do đó, phấn có nguồn gốc từ [[oxit kẽm]] được sử dụng để duy trì làn da trắng ngà.<ref name=":16">{{Cite book|title=Classic beauty : the history of make-up|last=Hernandez, Gabriela, 1965-|publisher=|year=2011|isbn=978-0-7643-3690-4|location=Atglen, PA|pages=146|oclc=730404983}}</ref> Do bệnh [[đậu mùa]] bùng phát năm 1760, ít phụ nữ sử dụng phấn phủ mặt hơn do nó khiến da nặng nề và để lộ sẹo trên khuôn mặt.<ref name=":16" /> Tác phẩm nghệ thuật từ thời [[Phục Hưng|Phục hưng]] đã củng cố hình ảnh lý tưởng về vẻ đẹp và ảnh hưởng đến chuyện dùng phấn phủ. Ứng dụng xã hội của phấn phủ để duy trì làn da trắng sáng, không tỳ vết có thể xuất hiện trong tác phẩm nghệ thuật thời Phục hưng gồm có [[Sự ra đời của thần Vệ Nữ]] của [[Sandro Botticelli]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haughton|first=Neil|date=2004-12-13|title=Perceptions of beauty in Renaissance art|journal=Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=229–233|doi=10.1111/j.1473-2130.2004.00142.x|issn=1473-2130|pmid=17166111}}</ref> Tác phẩm của [[Shakespeare]] bình luận về sự nữ tính và văn hóa sử dụng mỹ phẩm vào thời điểm đó, đặc biệt khi ông đề cập đến bạc, cho biết làn da sáng lấp lánh mong muốn đạt được khi sử dụng bột ngọc trai.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cosmetics in Shakespearean and Renaissance drama|last=Karim-Cooper, Farah|date=2006|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-2712-7|location=Edinburgh|oclc=173357186}}</ref>
== Lịch sử cận đại ==
=== 20th Century ===
During the [[Edwardian era]], makeup for women was used to enhance natural beauty and many young women applied light face powder on a daily basis.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web|url=https://vintagedancer.com/1900s/1900-1910-edwardian-makeup-and-beauty-products/|title=1900-1910 Edwardian Makeup and Beauty Products|last=Sessions|first=D|date=|website=vintagedancer.com|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-05-25|url-status=live}}</ref> Influenced by traditional beauty standards, women preferred pale, whitened and powdered skin throughout the early 1900s.<ref name=":17" /> However, in the [[1920s]], [[Hollywood]] became the main inspiration for beauty in America and powdering the face shifted from an [[Upper class|upper-class]] practice to that of the [[Social class|social-class]] as the powdered face look became associated with prostitutes and movie stars.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.insider.com/ideal-face-of-makeup-throughout-history-2019-4|title=What the ideal face of makeup looked like over the last 100 years|last=Krause|first=A|date=2019-04-26|website=Insider|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-05-25|url-status=live}}</ref> Due to growing popularity, the end of the decade saw a rise of cosmetic brands with over 1300 brands of face powder, which eventuated in a 52-million-dollar industry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vintagedancer.com/1920s/makeup-starts-the-cosmetics-industry/|title=1920s Makeup Starts the Cosmetics Industry - History|last=Fallon, Breana|date=2013-10-14|website=vintagedancer.com|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-05-25|url-status=live}}</ref> Early makeup developers including [[Elizabeth Arden]] and [[Helena Rubinstein]] produced skin care products and powders that attracted an international market.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|title=Clothing and fashion : American fashion from head to toe|others=Blanco F., José,, Doering, Mary D.,, Hunt-Hurst, Patricia,, Lee, Heather Vaughan|isbn=978-1-61069-309-7|location=Santa Barbara, California|oclc=904505699}}</ref> Cosmetics for women of colour during this time were also in production, with the first face powder for African-American women created by [[Anthony Overton]] in 1898, called the High-Brown Face Powder.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pageants, parlors, and pretty women : race and beauty in the twentieth-century South|last=Roberts, Blain.|publisher=|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4696-1557-8|location=Chapel Hill|pages=77|oclc=873805982}}</ref> Overton made multiple darker tones of face powder with product names including "nut-brown", "olive-tone", "brunette" and "soft-pink",<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.racked.com/2018/1/23/16901594/black-makeup-brands-history|title=Before Fenty: Over 100 Years of Black Makeup Brands|last=Nittle|first=Nadra|date=2018-01-23|website=Racked|language=en|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref> and by 1920, his sales earned him a Dun and Bradstreet Credit rating of one million dollars.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1960-02-11|title=Everett Overto, Head of Oldest Cosmetic Co., Dies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LK8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=%22Overton+Hygienic+Manufacturing+Co.%22#v=onepage|journal=Jet|volume=17|pages=19|via=Google Books}}</ref> Other [[African Americans|African-American]] entrepreneurs also marketed cosmetics despite discrimination during the [[Jim Crow laws|Jim Crow era]], including [[Annie Turnbo Malone]] who sold face powder in darker shades which developed into a multi-million dollar business.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2019/2/15/18226396/annie-turnbo-malone-hair-entrepreneur-trump-black-history|title=Meet Annie Turnbo Malone, the hair care entrepreneur Trump shouted out in his Black History Month proclamation|last=Nittle|first=Nadra|date=2019-02-15|website=Vox|language=en|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref> Businesswoman [[Madam C. J. Walker]] [[Madam C. J. Walker Manufacturing Company|retailed face powders]] for African American women in [[drugstores]] despite the controversy caused as skin bleaching for fairer skin was a popular beauty trend at the time.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4215&context=etd|title=African American women's use of cosmetics products in relation to their attitudes and self-identity|last=Davis|first=L. C.|publisher=Iowa State University|year=2013|location=Ames, Iowa|pages=10}}</ref> Hungarian- American businessman Morton Neumann established his own cosmetic company in 1926, Valmor Products Co., and marketed darker-toned face powders for [[black women]] which retailed for 60 cents each.<ref name=":6" />
[[Tập_tin:Compact,_powder_(AM_1995.202.34-2).jpg|thế=|nhỏ|270x270px|Pale compact face powder with a powder puff applicator from the 1930s]]
In the [[1930s]], face powder remained a staple cosmetic product and its increased demand raised health concerns about lead based powders that were still in use.<ref name=":9" /> As a result, The Federal Trade Commission in America passed the Food, Drugs and Cosmetics Act in 1938 to regulate the ingredients used in cosmetics and ensure they were safe for use.<ref name=":9" /> Due to [[World War II|World War Two]] rationing in the 1940s, cosmetics were not as widely available, yet a powdered, beautified face remained the desired beauty trend.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Making war, making women : femininity and duty on the American home front, 1941-1945|last=McEuen, Melissa A., 1961-|date=2011|publisher=University of Georgia Press|isbn=978-0-8203-3758-6|location=Athens|pages=46|oclc=740435950}}</ref> In 1942, the American War Production Board sought to conserve materials by placing restrictions on the production of certain cosmetics.<ref name=":12" /> Face powder was found to be a heavily used product by women and remained in production during wartime as cosmetics were considered essential products for women’s self-expression and autonomy.<ref name=":12" /> The interwar period in Germany in 1935 also saw that cosmetics were on demand, accounting for 48% of magazine advertising with face powder being a staple item.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Science of Beauty|last=Ramsbrock|first=Annelie|date=2015|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|isbn=978-1-349-50428-2|location=New York|pages=117|language=en|doi=10.1057/9781137523150}}</ref>
[[Tập_tin:7_reasons_Creme_Puff_by_Max_Factor,_1954.jpg|thế=|nhỏ|430x430px|An advertisement for Max Factor's 'Creme Puff' face powder from 1954]]
Following the Second World War, rationing in America had ceased and the cosmetic industry flourished.<ref name=":18">{{Cite book|title=Fetishism and Curiosity : Cinema and the Mind's Eye.|last=Mulvey|first=L|date=2013|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-45113-2|edition=2nd|location=Basingstoke|pages=|oclc=927490893}}</ref> With the popularity of female Hollywood stars including [[Marilyn Monroe]] and [[Audrey Hepburn]], American television culture influenced the [[1950s]] beauty trend of clear, beautified skin.<ref name=":18" /> [[Max Factor]], the leading cosmetic brand at the time, introduced the Crème Puff, the first ever multipurpose face powder that offered an all-in-one base, setting and finishing powder.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Compacts and cosmetics : beauty from Victorian times to the present day|last=Marsh, Madeleine, 1960-|publisher=|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4738-2294-8|location=Barnsley|pages=157|oclc=894638928}}</ref> The [[Western cosmetics in the 1970s|1970s]] that saw a widespread inclusion of diversity with new cosmetic brands offering face powder with darker shades.<ref name=":23">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1977/07/09/the-beautiful-billion-dollar-business-of-black-cosmetics/5a690143-de1a-4778-900a-ac093ebe4e34/|title=The Beautiful Billion-Dollar Business of Black Cosmetics|last=Hyde|first=Nina S.|date=1977-07-09|work=Washington Post|access-date=2020-05-25|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> By 1977, cosmetics for black women became a $1.5 billion industry, with darker shades of powders, foundation and lipsticks available in stores around the USA.<ref name=":23" /> By the [[1990s in fashion|1990s]], face powder became a staple cosmetic product for not only concealing blemishes but setting makeup in place.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.makeup.com/product-and-reviews/all-products-and-reviews/history-of-face-powder|title=Where Did Face Powder Come From? {{!}} Makeup.com by L'Oréal|last=Kilkeary|first=A. M.|date=2018-06-27|website=makeup.com|language=en-US|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-05-28|url-status=live}}</ref> The Australian Government’s National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme was established in 1990 to ensure that industrial chemicals used in face powders and other cosmetics are safe for citizens to use.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org.au/curious/people-medicine/chemistry-cosmetics|title=The chemistry of cosmetics|last=mischa|date=2015-04-27|website=Curious|language=en|access-date=2020-05-25}}</ref>
=== 21st Century ===
The changing conceptions of [[masculinity]] during the [[2000s in fashion|2000s]] led to evolving beauty trends that saw cosmetic products sold to men including facial scrubs, face powders and eye shadow.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The multimedia encyclopedia of women in today's world|publisher=|others=Oyster, Carol K.,, Stange, Mary Zeiss,, Sloan, Jane, 1946-|year=|isbn=978-1-4129-9596-2|location=Thousand Oaks, Calif.|pages=346|oclc=698749519}}</ref> The use of face makeup has expanded to include males who desire an enhanced look, using face powder to achieve a chiselled complexion.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Gough|first1=Brendan|title=Straight Guys Do Wear Make-Up: Contemporary Masculinities and Investment in Appearance|date=2014|work=Debating Modern Masculinities: Change, Continuity, Crisis?|pages=106–124|editor-last=Roberts|editor-first=Steven|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|language=en|doi=10.1057/9781137394842_7|isbn=978-1-137-39484-2|last2=Hall|first2=Matthew|last3=Seymour-Smith|first3=Sarah}}</ref> As cosmetics in contemporary society are diverse in shade range options, modern face powder enhances natural skin tones and most brands cater for all skin types. [[21st century|21<sup>st</sup> century]] cosmetic trends are heavily influenced by beauty icons and the face powder application technique known as [[Baking (make-up)|‘baking’]] has been popularised by socialite [[Kim Kardashian|Kim Kardashian West]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/face-powder-should-you-use-how-to-makeup-guide-translucent-loose-pressed-nars-mac-a7594526.html|title=Everything you need to know about face powders|last=Young|first=S|date=2017-02-22|website=The Independent|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-05-25|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Baking (make-up)|Baking]] involves patting translucent face powder under the eyes, the 'T' zone, beneath the cheek bones, along the jawline and on the sides of the nose, allowing it to sit for a few minutes while the foundation is absorbed by the skin’s body heat, then brushing it off.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.glamour.com/story/makeup-artist-mario-dedivanovi|title=What Is "Baking" and Do You Need It in Your Life?|last=Shapouri|first=B|date=2015-07-10|website=Glamour|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-05-28|url-status=live}}</ref> This technique creates a pore-less and creaseless look that is a desired make-up beauty standard in modern times.
==Tham khảo==
{{tham khảo|2}}
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