Chủng tộc

Phân nhóm con người dựa trên các phẩm chất thể chất hoặc xã hội chung thành các loại

Chủng tộc thường dùng để chỉ những phân loại của con người trong quần thể hoặc dựa vào nhóm tổ tiên, trên cơ sở tập hợp khác nhau của đặc tính di truyền.[1] Những đặc điểm lý học thường thấy là những đặc điểm nổi bật về thị giác như màu da, sọ hoặc các đặc tính của khuôn mặt và kiểu tóc.[1][2] Khái niệm về chủng tộc có thể khác nhau ở nhiều quốc gia, theo sự thay đổi theo các nền văn hóa cụ thể. Ví dụ, tại Hoa Kỳ thuật ngữ này được sử dụng trong các mô tả cá nhân (ví dụ như trắng (white), đen (black), v.v), trong khi ở Ý nó chỉ áp dụng cho một số ít các loài được thuần hóa, và do đó không áp dụng cho động vật hoang dã hoặc cho con người. Cụm từ chủng tộc được sử dụng trong phân loại học như là một phân loài.

Tham khảo sửa

  1. ^ a b AAPA Statement on Biological Aspects of Race Lưu trữ 2011-08-12 tại Wayback Machine American Association of Physical Anthropologists "Pure races, in the sense of genetically homogeneous populations, do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past."
  2. ^ Bamshad, Michael and Steve E. Olson. "Does Race Exist?" Lưu trữ 2007-06-14 tại Wayback Machine, Scientific American Magazine (10 tháng 11 năm 2003).

Đọc thêm sửa

  • Abizadeh, Arash (2001) "Ethnicity, Race, and a Possible Humanity" World Order 33.1: 23-34.
  • Banton M (1977) The idea of race. Westview Press, Boulder
  • Boas 1912 "Change in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants" in American Anthropologist 14: 530-562
  • Brace 1964 "A Non-racial Approach Toward the Understanding of Human Diversity" in The Concept of Race, ed. Ashley Montagu
  • Calafell F (2003) Classifying humans. Nat Genet 33:435–436
  • Cooper RS, Kaufman JS, Ward R (2003) Race and genomics. N Engl J Med 348:1166–1170
  • Dobzhansky, T. (1970). Genetics of the Evolutionary Process. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
  • ——— (2005) Race and reification in science. Science 307:1050–1051
  • Ehrlich and Holm 1964 "A Biological View of Race" in The Concept of Race, ed. Ashley Montagu
  • Frayer, David, M. Wolpoff, A. Thorne, F. Smith, G. Pope "Theories of Modern Origins: The Paleontological Test" in American Anthropologist 95(1) 14-50
  • Guthrie RD (1996) The mammoth steppe and the origin of mongoloids and their dispersal. In: Akazawa T, Szathmary E (eds) Prehistoric Mongoloid dispersals. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 172–186
  • Hannaford I (1996) Race: the history of an idea in the West. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
  • Harpending H, Rogers A (2000) Genetic perspectives on human origins and differentiation. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 1:361–385
  • Harris, Marvin (1980) Patterns of Race in the Americas. Greenwood Press
  • Hooton, E.A. (1926). Methods of racial analysis. Science 63, 75–81.
  • Jablonski NG (2004) The evolution of human skin and skin color. Annu Rev Anthropol 33:585–623
  • Keita SOY, Kittles RA (1997) The persistence of racial thinking and the myth of racial divergence. Am Anthropol 99:534–544
  • Lahr MM (1996) The evolution of modern human diversity: a study of cranial variation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom
  • Lamason RL, Mohideen MA, Mest JR, Wong AC, Norton HL, Aros MC, Jurynec MJ, Mao X, Humphreville VR, Humbert JE, Sinha S, Moore JL, Jagadeeswaran P, Zhao W, Ning G, Makalowska I, McKeigue PM, O'Donnell D, Kittles R, Parra EJ, Mangini NJ, Grunwald DJ, Shriver MD, Canfield VA, Cheng KC (2005). SLC24A5, a putative cation exchanger, affects pigmentation in zebrafish and humans. Science 310: 1782-6.
  • Lewis B (1990) Race and slavery in the Middle East. Oxford University Press, New York
  • Lie J. (2004). Modern Peoplehood. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
  • Lieberman DE, McBratney BM, Krovitz G (2002) The evolution and development of cranial form in Homo sapiens. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:1134–1139
  • Lieberman L (2001) How "Caucasoids" got such big crania and why they shrank: from Morton to Rushton. Curr Anthropol 42:69–95
  • Leiberman and Jackson 1995 "Race and Three Models of Human Origins" in American Anthropologist 97(2) 231-242
  • Lieberman, Hampton, Littlefield, and Hallead 1992 "Race in Biology and Anthropology: A Study of College Texts and Professors" in Journal of Research in Science Teaching 29:301-321
  • Lewontin 1973 "The Apportionment of Human Diversity" in Evolutionary Biology 6:381-397
  • Livingstone 1962 "On the Non-Existence of Human Races" in Current Anthropology 3: 279-281
  • Long, J.C. and Kittles, R.A. (2003). Human genetic diversity and the nonexistence of biological races. Hum Biol. 75, 449–71. [1]
  • Marks J (1995) Human biodiversity: genes, race, and history. Aldine de Gruyter, New York
  • Mayr, E. (1969). Principles of Systematic Zoology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  • Mays VM, Ponce NA, Washington DL, Cochran SD (2003) Classification of race and ethnicity: implications for public health. Annu Rev Public Health 24:83–110
  • Meltzer M (1993) Slavery: a world history, rev ed. DaCapo Press, Cambridge, MA
  • Montagu (1941). "The Concept of Race in Light of Genetics" in Journal of Heredity 23: 241-247
  • Montagu (1942). Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race
  • Mörner M (1967) Race mixture in the history of Latin America. Little, Brown, Boston
  • Morton NE, Collins A (1998) Tests and estimates of allelic association in complex inheritance. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:11389–11393
  • Nobles M (2000) Shades of citizenship: race and the census in modern politics. Stanford University Press, Stanford
  • Parra EJ, Kittles RA, Shriver MD (2004) Implications of correlations between skin color and genetic ancestry for biomedical research. Nat Genet 36:S54–S60
  • Parra EJ, Marcini A, Akey J, Martinson J, Batzer MA, Cooper R, Forrester T, Allison DB, Deka R, Ferrell RE, Shriver MD (1998) Estimating African American admixture proportions by use of population-specific alleles. Am J Hum Genet 63:1839–1851
  • Parra FC, Amado RC, Lambertucci JR, Rocha J, Antunes CM, Pena SD (2003) Color and genomic ancestry in Brazilians. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:177–182 [2]
  • Platz EZ, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Kantoff PW, Giovannucci E (2000) Racial variation in prostate cancer incidence and in hormonal system markers among male health professionals. J Natl Cancer Inst 92:2009–2017
  • Pritchard JK (2001) Are rare variants responsible for susceptibility to complex diseases? Am J Hum Genet 69:124–137
  • Pritchard JK, Cox NJ (2002) The allelic architecture of human disease genes: common disease-common variant...or not? Hum Mol Genet 11:2417–2423
  • Rees JL (2003) Genetics of hair and skin color. Annu Rev Genet 37:67–90
  • Relethford JH (2002) Apportionment of global human genetic diversity based on craniometrics and skin color. Am J Phys Anthropol 118:393–398
  • Risch N (2000) Searching for the genetic determinants in a new millennium. Nature 405:847–856
  • Roseman CC (2004) Detecting interregionally diversifying natural selection on modern human cranial form by using matched molecular and morphometric data. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:12824–12829
  • Rosenberg NA, Pritchard JK, Weber JL, Cann HM, Kidd KK, Zhivotovsky LA, Feldman MW (2002) Genetic structure of human populations. Science 298:2381–2385 [3]
  • Rotimi CN (2004) Are medical and nonmedical uses of large-scale genomic markers conflating genetics and "race"? Nat Genet 36:S43–S47
  • Serre D, Langaney A, Chech M, Teschler-Nicola M, Paunovic M, Mennecier P, Hofreiter M, Possnert G G, Pääbo S (2004) No evidence of Neandertal mtDNA contribution to early modern humans. PLoS Biol 2:313–317
  • Shriver, M. D. et al. (2003). Skin pigmentation, biogeographical ancestry, and admixture mapping. Hum. Genet. 112, 387–399. [4]
  • Sider, Gerald 1993 Lumbee Indian Histories: Race, Ethnicity, and Indian Identity in the Southern United States
  • Smedley A (1999) Race in North America: origin and evolution of a worldview, 2nd ed. Westview Press, Boulder
  • Smith DJ, Lusis AJ (2002) The allelic structure of common disease. Hum Mol Genet 11:2455–2461
  • Smith, Fred (1982) "Upper Pleistocene Hominid Evolution in South-Central Europe: A Review of the Evidence and Analysis of Trends" Current Anthropology 23: 667-686
  • Smith MW, Patterson N, Lautenberger JA, Truelove AL, McDonald GJ, Waliszewska A, Kessing BD, et al. (2004) A high-density admixture map for disease gene discovery in African Americans. Am J Hum Genet 74:1001–1013
  • Snowden FM (1983) Before color prejudice: the ancient view of blacks. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
  • Spickard PR (1992) The illogic of American racial categories. In: Root MPP (ed) Racially mixed people in America. Sage, Newbury Park, CA, pp 12–23
  • Stanton W (1960) The leopard's spots: scientific attitudes toward race in America, 1815–1859. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
  • Stringer C (2002) Modern human origins: progress and prospects. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 357:563–579
  • Sturm RA, Teasdale RD, Box NF (2001) Human pigmentation genes: identification, structure and consequences of polymorphic variation. Gene 277:49–62
  • Takaki R (1993) A different mirror: a history of multicultural America. Little, Brown, Boston
  • Tang H, Quertermous T, Rodriguez B, Kardia SL, Zhu X, Brown A, Pankow JS, Province MA, Hunt SC, Boerwinkle E, Schork NJ, Risch NJ (2005). Genetic structure, self-identified race/ethnicity, and confounding in case-control association studies. Am J Hum Genet 76, 268-75. [5]
  • Templeton AR (1998) Human races: a genetic and evolutionary perspective. Am Anthropol 100:632–650
  • ——— (2002) Out of Africa again and again. Nature 416:45–51
  • Thomas DC, Witte JS (2002) Point: population stratification: a problem for case-control studies of candidate-gene associations? Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11:505–512
  • Thorne and Wolpoff 1992 "The Multiregional Evolution of Humans" in Scientific American (April) 76-83
  • Todorov T (1993) On human diversity. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
  • Wallace R, Wallace D, Wallace RG (2004) Coronary heart disease, chronic inflammation, and pathogenic social hierarchy: a biological limit to possible reductions in morbidity and mortality. J Natl Med Assoc 96:609–619
  • Wilson JF, Weale ME, Smith AC, Gratrix F, Fletcher B, Thomas MG, Bradman N, Goldstein DB (2001) Population genetic structure of variable drug response. Nat Genet 29:265–269
  • Wilson and Brown 1953 "The Subspecies Concept and Its Taxonomic Application" in Systematic Zoology 2: 97-110
  • Wolpoff, Milford 1993 "Multiregional Evolution: The Fossil Alternative to Eden" in The Human Evolution Sourcebook Russell Ciochon and John Fleagle, eds.
  • Yu N, Chen FC, Ota S, Jorde LB, Pamilo P, Patthy L, Ramsay M, Jenkins T, Shyue SK, Li WH (2002) Larger genetic differences within Africans than between Africans and Eurasians. Genetics 161:269–274

Liên kết ngoài sửa

Báo cáo và tiêu chuẩn chính thức sửa

Ấn phẩm phổ biến sửa

Khác sửa