|
:"Trừ các lạt ma hay một số dân thường khác đã cạo trọc đầu, người Tây Tạng đều tết tóc quấn quanh đầu và cùng với vài vòng tết nhỏ cầu kỳ khác điểm tô thêm, khiến cho đầu họ trông giống như đội vương miện vậy. Họ thường đội nón hình chóp có hình dạng tùy vào quê của họ, có lúc, chóp nón có gắn một mảnh vuông, trên đó treo lủng lẳng những sợi tua dày bằng len. Để tránh cho nên khỏi bị bay, họ gắn nón vào lọn tóc tết dài của mình và lọn tóc này không quấn quanh đầu. Tai trái của họ đeo một chiếc bông tai nặng bằng bạc có gắn san hô hoặc đá ngọc lam [[turquoise]] trang trí.
:Their costume is not elaborate. It normally consists only of a ''[[chuba]]'', a long capacious robe with wide, elongated sleeves which hang almost to the ground. This is caught up at the waist by a woolen girdle, so that its skirts reach only to the knees and its upper folds form an enormous circular pocket round its wearer's chest. This is called the ''ampa'', and in it are stowed a wide range of implements — an eating bowl, a bag of ''tsampa'', and many other small necessities. Many ''chubas'' are made of wool, either the plain gray wool they spin in [[Sikang]] or the splendid, warm, soft stuff from Lhasa, dyed a rich dark red. The nomads, on the other hand, generally wear a sheepskin ''chuba'', hand-sewn and crudely tanned in butter, with the fleece on the inside. The town-dwelling Tibetans, prosperous merchants for the most part, supplement this garment with cotton or woolen drawers and a cotton or silk undershirt with long sleeves, but the nomads normally wear nothing at all underneath it, though in winter they sometimes put on sheepskin drawers. The Tibetans hardly ever do their ''chubas'' up over their chests. The right shoulder and arm are almost always left free, and when they are on the march or at work the whole top part of the robe is allowed to slip down so that it is supported only by the belt. This leaves them naked above the waist and clad in a very odd-looking sort of skirt below it. They hardly feel the cold at all and in the depth of winter, heedless of frost or snow or wind, they trudge imperturbably along with their bosoms bared to the icy blast. Their feet, too, are bare inside their great high boots. These have soft soles of raw, untanned leather; the loose-fitting leg of the boot, which may be red or black or green, has a sort of woolen garter around the top of it which is fastened to the leg above the knee with another, very brightly colored strip of woolen material."<ref>[[André Migot|Migot, André]] (1955). ''Tibetan Marches''. Translated by Peter Fleming. E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., U.S.A., pp. 84-86.</ref>
==Traditional Gifts==
A [[Khata]] is a traditional ceremonious [[scarf]] given in [[Tibet]]. It symbolizes goodwill, auspiciousness and compassion. It is usually made of [[silk]], and the color is generally [[white]] to symbolise the pure heart of the giver.<ref>[http://library.thinkquest.org/25772/site/english/khata.html Khata/Tibet "roof of the world"\<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
The khata is a highly versatile gift. It can be presented at any festive occasions to a host or at [[wedding]]s, [[funeral]]s, [[birth]]s, [[graduation]]s, [[arrival]]s and departure of guests etc. The Tibetans commonly give a kind acknowledgment of "Tashi Delek" (meaning good luck) at the time of presenting.<ref>[http://www.indiemerchstore.com/sft/item.php?id=2330 Students For A Free Tibet - Khata (Tibetan Scarf)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
A gift traditionally given at the time of a new birth is that of an [[ibex]] figurine, as described below by August Hermann Francke.
<blockquote><p>"Our Christian evangelist at [[Khalatse]] had become a father a few weeks before, and the people of the village had made presents of "flour-[[ibex]]" to him and his wife. He gave me one of those figures, which are made of flour and butter, and told me that it was a custom in Tibet and Ladakh, to make presents of "flour-ibex" on the occasion of the birth of a child. This is quite interesting information. I had often wondered why there were so many rock carvings of ibex at places connected with the pre-Buddhist religion of Ladakh. Now it appears probable that they are thank offerings after the birth of children. As I have tried to show in my previous article, people used to go to the pre-Buddhist places of worship, in particular, to pray to be blessed with children."<ref>Francke (1914), pp. 95-96.</ref></p></blockquote>
{{clear}}
==Polyandry and polygyny==
{{main|Polyandry in Tibet}}
Tibetans used to practice [[polyandry]] widely.<ref>Stein, R. A. ''Tibetan Civilization'' (1922). English edition with minor revisions in 1972 Stanford University Press, pp. 97-98. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-8047-0901-7.</ref> In his memoirs about his life in Tibet in the 1940s, Austrian writer [[Heinrich Harrer]] reports encountering nomads practising polyandry: "We were astonished to find polyandry practised among the nomads." "When several brothers share the same wife, the eldest is always the master in the household and the others have rights only when he is away or amusing himself elsewhere."<ref>Harrer, Heinrich. ''Seven Years in Tibet, with a new epilogue by the author. Translated from the German by Richard Graves. With an introduction by Peter Fleming'', First Tarcher/Putnam Hardcover Edition, 1997. ISBN 0-87477-888-3.</ref>
Harrer also mentions the practice of [[polygyny]] in one particular case: a man marrying "several daughters of a house in which there is no son and heir." "The arrangement prevents the family fortune from being dispersed."<ref>Harrer, Heinrich. ''Seven Years in Tibet'', op. cit.</ref>
== Rugs ==
{{Main|Tibetan rug}}
'''Tibetan rug''' making is an ancient art and craft in the tradition of [[Tibet]]an people. These [[Carpet|rug]]s are primarily made from Tibetan highland [[sheep]]'s virgin wool. The Tibetan uses rugs for almost any domestic use from flooring to wall hanging to horse saddles.
The process of making Tibetan rugs is unique in the sense that almost everything is done by hand. But with the introduction of modern technology, a few aspects of the rug making processes have been taken over by machine primarily because of cost, the disappearance of knowledge etc. Moreover, some new finishing touches are also made possible by machine.
Tibetan rugs are big business in not only Tibet, but also Nepal, where Tibetan immigrants brought with them their knowledge of rug making. Currently in Nepal the rug business is one of the largest industries in the country and there are many rug exporters.
== Architecture ==
[[Image:White Palace of the Potala.jpg|thumb|right|The White Palace of the [[Potala]]]]
Tibetan architecture contains [[China|Chinese]] and [[India]]n influences, and reflects a deeply [[Buddhist]] approach. The Buddhist [[prayer wheel]], along with two deer or dragons, can be seen on nearly every [[Gompa]] in [[Tibet]]. The design of the Tibetan [[Chörten]]s can vary, from roundish walls in [[Kham]] to squarish, four-sided walls in [[Ladakh]].
The most unusual feature of Tibetan architecture is that many of the houses and monasteries are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south, and are often made out a mixture of rocks, wood, cement and earth. Little fuel is available for heat or lighting, so flat roofs are built to conserve heat, and multiple windows are constructed to let in sunlight. Walls are usually sloped inwards at 10 degrees as a precaution against frequent earthquakes in the mountainous area.
[[Image:Tashilhunpo Monastery, Shigatse.JPG|thumb|left|250px|[[Tashilhunpo]], reflects a style which would influence that of [[Mongol]] styles of architecture]]
===World Heritage Site===
Standing at 117 meters in height and 360 meters in width, the [[Potala Palace]], designated as a [[World Heritage Site]] in 1994 and extended to include the Norbulingka area in 2001, is considered a most important example of Tibetan architecture.<ref>{{cite web
|author=
|year=
|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/707
|title=Historic Ensemble of the Potala Palace, Lhasa
|publisher=unesco
|accessdate=2008-02-10
}}
</ref> Formerly the residence of the [[Dalai Lama]], it contains over a thousand rooms within thirteen stories, and houses portraits of the past Dalai Lamas and statues of the Buddha. It is divided into the outer White Palace, which serves as the administrative quarters, and the inner Red Quarters, which houses the assembly hall of the Lamas, chapels, 10,000 shrines and a vast library of Buddhist scriptures.
===Traditional architecture===
[[Image:Monastery ruins, Yerpa 1993.JPG|thumb|[[Yerpa]] monastery ruins]]
Traditional [[Kham]] architecture is seen in most dwellings in [[Kangding]]. Kham houses tend to be spacious and fit in well with their environment. Their floors and ceilings are wooden, as houses are throughout in Kangding. Horizontal timber beams support the roof and these in turn are supported by wooden columns. Although the area has been heavily logged, wood is imported and used abundantly for housing. The [[Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture|Ganzi]] area of Kham, surrounded by forests, is known for its beautiful wooden houses built in a range of styles and lavishly decorated with wooden ornamentation. The interiors of houses are usually paneled with wood and the cabinetry is ornately decorated. Although various materials are used in the well-built houses, it is the skilful [[carpentry]] that is striking. This skill is passed down from father to son and there appear to be plenty of carpenters. However a threat to traditional Tibetan carpentry is the growing use of concrete structures. Some consider the increased use of concrete as a deliberate infiltration of the Chinese influence into Tibet. In [[Gaba Township]], where there are few Chinese, almost all the structures are traditional.<ref>.{{cite web
|author=Pamela Logan
|year=1998
|url=http://www.asianart.com/cers/archrep.html
|title=Wooden Architecture in Ganzi
|publisher=
|accessdate=2008-02-10
}}
</ref>
===Religious architecture===
[[Image:Palcho Monastery.jpg|thumb|[[Palcho Monastery]]]]
[[Image:Sbgzhonzan1.jpg|thumb| Buddhist scripture was catalogued in its entirety at [[Shalu Monastery]]]]
The events that took place in Tibet in the twentieth century exacted a heavy toll on Tibetan monastic architecture.
Under the 13th Dalai Lama, the Tengyeling monastery was demolished in 1914 for seeking to come to terms with the Chinese.<ref>Heinrich Harrer, ''Seven Years in Tibet, with a new epilogue by the author. Translated from the German by Richard Graves. With an introduction by Peter Fleming'', First Tarcher/Putnam Hardcover Edition, 1997 (ISBN|0-87477-888-3): "The penalties for political offenses are very strict. People still speak of the monks of Tengyeling, who forty years ago sought to come to terms with the Chinese. Their monastery was demolished and their names blotted out.</ref> Under Regent Taktra, the [[Sera]] monastery was bombarded with howitzers and ransacked by the Tibetan army in 1947 for siding with former regent Reting.<ref>Heinrich Harrer, ''Seven Years in Tibet'', op. cit.: "It was not until the government bombarded the town and monastery of Sera with howitzers and knocked down a few houses that the resistance ceased.(...) The monastery was thoroughly ransacked by the soldiers, and for many weeks afterward gold cups, brocades, and other valuable objects kept turning up in the bazaars.</ref>
China's Cultural Revolution resulted in the deterioration or loss of Buddhist monasteries, both by intentional destruction and through lack of protection and maintenance.
Starting in the 1980s, Tibetans have begun to restore those monasteries that survived. This has become an international effort. Experts are teaching the Tibetans how to restore the building and save the remaining monasteries on the eastern plateau.<ref>{{cite web
|author=Pamela Logan
|year=
|url=http://www.asianart.com/cers/index.html
|title=Conserving Tibetan Art and Architecture
|publisher=asianart
|accessdate=2008-02-10
}}
</ref>
Monasteries such as the [[Kumbum Monastery]] continue to be affected by Chinese politics. [[Simbiling Monastery]] was completely flattened in 1967, although it has to some degree been restored.
[[Tashilhunpo|Tashilhunpo Monastery]] shows the influence of [[Mongols|Mongol]] architecture. [[Changzhug|Changzhug monastery]] is one of the oldest in Tibet, said to have been first built in the 7th century during the reign of King [[Songsten Gampo]] (605?-650 CE). [[Jokhang]] was also originally built under Songsten Gampo. [[Tsurphu Monastery]] was founded by the first [[Karmapa]], [[Düsum Khyenpa]] (1110–1193) in 1159, after he visited the site and laid the foundation for an establishment of a seat there by making offerings to the local protectors, [[dharmapala]] and [[genius loci]].<ref>{{cite web
|author=
|year=
|url=http://www.kagyuoffice.org/mainseats.tsurphu.html
|title=Tsurphu Monastery - The Main Seat Of The Karmapa
|publisher=Karmapa's Office of Administration
|accessdate=2008-02-10
}}
</ref> In 1189 he revisited the site and founded his main seat there. The monastery grew to hold 1000 monks. [[Tsozong Gongba Monastery]] is a small [[shrine]] built around 14the century A.D. [[Palcho Monastery]] was founded in 1418 and known for its [[kumbum]] which has 108 chapels on its four floors. [[Chokorgyel Monastery]], founded in 1509 by [[Gendun Gyatso, 2nd Dalai Lama]] once housed 500 monks but was completely destroyed during the [[Cultural Revolution]].
[[Ramoche Temple]] is an important temple in Lhasa. The original building complex was strongly influenced by [[Tang Dynasty]] architectural style as it was first built by Han Chinese architects in the middle of the 7th century. [[Princess Wencheng]] took charge of this project and ordered the temple be erected facing east to show her homesickness.
See [[List of Tibetan monasteries]].
== Music ==
{{Main|Music of Tibet}}
[[Image:Ladakhmusic.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Musicians in Ladakh]]
The '''music of Tibet''' reflects the cultural heritage of the trans-Himalayan region, centered in [[Tibet]] but also known wherever ethnic [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] groups are found in [[India]], [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]] and further abroad. First and foremost Tibetan music is [[religious music]], reflecting the profound influence of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] on the culture.
===Chanting===
Tibetan music often involves [[chanting]] in [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] or [[Sanskrit]], as an integral part of the religion. These chants are complex, often recitations of [[sacred text]]s or in celebration of various [[Tibetan festivals|festivals]]. [[Yang]] chanting, performed without metrical timing, is accompanied by resonant [[drum]]s and low, sustained syllables. Other styles include those unique to the various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, such as the classical music of the popular [[Gelugpa]] school, and the romantic music of the [[Nyingmapa]], [[Sakyapa]] and [[Kagyupa]] schools.
Secular Tibetan music has been promoted by organizations like the [[Tenzin Gyatso|Dalai Lama]]'s [[Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts]]. This organization specialized in the [[lhamo]], an [[opera]]tic style, before branching out into other styles, including [[dance music]] like [[toeshey]] and [[nangma]]. Nangma is especially popular in the [[karaoke]] bars of the urban center of Tibet, [[Lhasa]]. Another form of popular music is the classical [[gar (music)|gar]] style, which is performed at rituals and ceremonies. [[Lu (music)|Lu]] are a type of songs that feature glottal vibrations and high pitches. There are also epic bards who sing of Tibet's national hero [[Gesar]].
===Modern and popular===
Tibetans are well-represented in Chinese popular culture. Tibetan singers are particularly known for their strong vocal abilities, which many attribute to the high altitudes of the Tibetan Plateau. Tseten Dolma (才旦卓玛) rose to fame in the 1960s for her music-and-dance suite "The Earth is Red". Kelsang Metok (格桑梅朵) is a popular singer who combines traditional Tibetan songs with elements of Chinese and Western pop. Purba Rgyal (Pubajia or 蒲巴甲) was the 2006 winner of Haonaner, the Chinese version of [[American Idol]]. In 2006, he starred in [[Sherwood Hu]]'s ''Prince of the Himalayas'', an adaptation of [[Shakespeare]]'s [[Hamlet]], set in ancient Tibet and featuring an all-Tibetan cast.
Tibetan music has had a profound effect on some styles of Western music, especially [[New Age music|New Age]]. Composers like [[Philip Glass]] and [[Henry Eichheim]] are most well known for their use of Tibetan elements in their music.{{Citation needed|date=January 2007}} The first such fusion was ''[[Tibetan Bells (album)|Tibetan Bells]]'', a 1971 release by [[Nancy Hennings]] and [[Henry Wolff]]. The soundtrack to ''[[Kundun]]'', by [[Philip Glass]], has helped to popularize Tibetan music.
Foreign styles of popular music have also had a major impact within Tibet. Indian [[ghazal]] and [[filmi]] are very popular, as is [[rock and roll]], an American style which has produced Tibetan performers like [[Rangzen Shonu]]. Since the relaxation of some laws in the 1980s, [[Tibetan pop]], popularized by the likes of [[Yadong]], [[Jampa Tsering]], 3-member group [[AJIA]], 4-member group [[Gao Yuan Hong]], 5-member group [[Gao Yuan Feng]], and [[Dechen Shak-Dagsay]] are well-known, as are the sometimes politicized lyrics of [[nangma]]. Gaoyuan Hong in particular has introduced elements of Tibetan language [[rapping]] into their singles.
== Literature ==
There is a rich ancient tradition of lay Tibetan literature which includes epics, poetry, short stories, dance scripts and mime, plays and so on which has expanded into a huge body of work - some of which has been translated into Western languages. Tibetan literature has a historical span of over 1300 years.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tibetan literature: Studies in genre|year=1996|publisher=Snow Lion Publ.|location=Ithaca, NY|isbn=9781559390446|pages=11|editor=Cabezón, José Ignacio; Jackson, Roger Reid}}</ref>
Perhaps the best known category of Tibetan literature outside of Tibet are the epic stories - particularly the famous [[Gesar]] epic.
== Festivals ==
{{Main|Tibetan Festivals}}
[[Image:Dancing at Sho Dun Festival, Norbulingka.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Sho dun (Shotun) festival]]
Tibetan festivals such as [[Losar]], Shoton, and the Bathing Festival are deeply rooted in indigenous religion, and also contain foreign influences. Each person takes part in the Bathing Festival three times: at birth, at marriage, and at death. It is traditionally believed that people should not bathe casually, but only on the most important occasions.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} Tibetan festivals are a high source of entertainment and can include many sports such as [[yak racing]].
== Drama ==
The Tibetan folk opera, known as ''Ache Lhamo'', which literally means "sister goddess", is a combination of dances, chants and songs. The repertoire is drawn from Buddhist stories and Tibetan history.
The Tibetan opera was founded in the 14th century by [[Thangthong Gyalpo]], a Lama and a bridge builder. Gyalpo and seven recruited girls organized the first performance to raise funds for building bridges, which would facilitate transportation in [[Tibet]]. The tradition continued, and llhamo is held on various festive occasions such as the Linka and Shoton festival.
The performance is usually a drama, held on a barren stage, that combines dances, chants and songs. Colorful masks are sometimes worn to identify a character, with red symbolizing a king and yellow indicating deities and lamas.
The performance starts with a stage purification and blessings. A narrator then sings a summary of the story, and the performance begins. Another ritual blessing is conducted at the end of the play.
== See also ==
| 